- Abstract
- Introduction
- Materials and Methods
- Results
- Purpose of raising livestock.
- Changes in animal stock over time.
- Use of balanceado (commercial animal feed).
- Knowledge of antibiotics in balanceado.
- Animal health-care practices.
- Knowledge and perceptions of large-scale commercial farms.
- Knowledge and perception of zoonotic disease transmission.
- Hygiene practices.
- Discussion
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Liu L, Oza S, Hogan D, Perin J, Rudan I, Lawn JE, Cousens S, Mathers C, Black RE, 2015. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2000–13, with projections to inform post-2015 priorities: an updated systematic analysis. Lancet 385: 430–440.
-
2.
Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S, Perin J, Scott S, Lawn JE, Rudan I, Campbell H, Cibulskis R, Li M, Mathers C, 2012. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet 379: 2151–2161.
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Lee G, Pan W, Yori PP, Olortegui MP, Tilley D, Gregory M, Oberhelman R, Burga R, Chavez CB, Kosek M, 2013. Symptomatic and asymptomatic Campylobacter infections associated with reduced growth in Peruvian children. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7: e2036.
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Ngure FM, Humphrey JH, Mbuya MN, Majo F, Mutasa K, Govha M, Mazarura E, Chasekwa B, Prendergast AJ, Curtis V, Boor KJ, 2013. Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 709–716.
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Hermans D, Pasmans F, Messens W, Martel A, Van Immerseel F, Rasschaert G, Heyndrickx M, Van Deun K, Haesebrouck F, 2012. Poultry as a host for the zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 12: 89–98.
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15.
Oberhelman RA, Gilman RH, Sheen P, Cordova J, Taylor DN, Zimic M, Meza R, Perez J, LeBron C, Cabrera L, Rodgers FG, 2003. Campylobacter transmission in a Peruvian shantytown: a longitudinal study using strain typing of Campylobacter isolates from chickens and humans in household clusters. J Infect Dis 187: 260–269.
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18.
Belongia EA, Chyou PH, Greenlee RT, Perez-Perez G, Bibb WF, DeVries EO, 2003. Diarrhea incidence and farm-related risk factors for Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Campylobacter jejuni antibodies among rural children. J Infect Dis 187: 1460–1468.
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19.
Locking ME, O'Brien SJ, Reilly WJ, Wright EM, Campbell DM, Coia JE, Browning LM, Ramsay CN, 2001. Risk factors for sporadic cases of Escherichia coli O157 infection: the importance of contact with animal excreta. Epidemiol Infect 127: 215–220.
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20.
Mosites EM, Rabinowitz PM, Thumbi SM, Montgomery JM, Palmer GH, May S, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Neuhouser ML, Walson JL, 2015. The relationship between livestock ownership and child stunting in three countries in eastern Africa using national survey data. PLoS One 10: e0136686.
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21.
Okeke IN, Laxminarayan R, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Klugman KP, 2005. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: recent trends and current status. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 481–493.
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Gilchrist MJ, Greko C, Wallinga DB, Beran GW, Riley DG, Thorne PS, 2007. The potential role of concentrated animal feeding operations in infectious disease epidemics and antibiotic resistance. Environ Health Perspect 115: 313–316.
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26.
Marshall BM, Levy SB, 2011. Food animals and antimicrobials: impacts on human health. Clin Microbiol Rev 24: 718–733.
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27.
Wegener HC, 2003. Antibiotics in animal feed and their role in resistance development. Curr Opin Microbiol 6: 439–445.
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28.
Allen HK, 2014. Antibiotic resistance gene discovery in food-producing animals. Curr Opin Microbiol 19: 25–29.
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O'Neill J, 2014. Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a Crisis for the Health and Wealth of Nations. The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance. London, United Kingdom.
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Byarugaba DK, 2014. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries and responsible risk factors. Int J Antimicrob Agents 24: 105–110.
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31.
Okeke IN, Klugman KP, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Laxminarayan R, 2005. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 568–580.
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Vasco K, Graham J, Trueba G, 2016. Detection of zoonotic enteropathogens in children and domestic animals in a semi-rural community in Ecuador. Appl Environ Microbiol 82: 4218–4224.
-
35.
Roess AA, Winch PJ, Ali NA, Akhter A, Afroz D, El Arifeen S, Darmstadt GL, Baqui AH, Bangladesh PROJAHNMO Study Group, 2013. Animal husbandry practices in rural Bangladesh: potential risk factors for antimicrobial drug resistance and emerging diseases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 965–970.
-
36.
Somphou P, Takano T, Nakamura K, 2008. Cohabitation with farm animals in urban households with and without occupational farm work: associations between participation in educational activities and good hygiene practices in at-risk households cohabitating with farm animals. Environ Health Prev Med 13: 322–331.
-
37.
Harvey SA, Winch PJ, Leontsini E, Gayoso CT, Romero SL, Gilman RH, Oberhelman RA, 2003. Domestic poultry-raising practices in a Peruvian shantytown: implications for control of Campylobacter jejuni-associated diarrhea. Acta Trop 86: 41–54.
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Animal Husbandry Practices and Perceptions of Zoonotic Infectious Disease Risks Among Livestock Keepers in a Rural Parish of Quito, Ecuador
Christopher Lowenstein
Christopher Lowenstein
Divisions of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California.
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William F. Waters
William F. Waters
Institute for Research in Health and Nutrition, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador.
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Amira Roess
Amira Roess
Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia.
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Jessica H. Leibler
Jessica H. Leibler
Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts.
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Jay P. Graham
Jay P. Graham
Public Health Institute, Oakland, California.
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Abstract
Small-scale livestock production plays an essential role as a source of income and nutrition for households in low- and middle-income countries, yet these practices can also increase risk of zoonotic infectious diseases, especially among young children. To mitigate this risk, there is a need to better understand how livestock producers perceive and manage risks of disease transmission. Twenty semistructured, in-depth interviews were conducted with small-scale livestock producers in a semirural parish of Quito, Ecuador. Interviews explored livestock-raising practices, including animal health-care practices and use of antimicrobials, family members' interactions with livestock and other animals, and perceptions of health risk associated with these practices and activities. Interviews were analyzed for common themes. Awareness of zoonotic disease transmission was widespread, yet few study participants considered raising livestock a significant health risk for themselves or their families. Several study households reported handling and consuming meat or poultry from sick or dead animals and using animal waste as a fertilizer on their crops. Households typically diagnosed and treated their sick animals, occasionally seeking treatment advice from employees of local animal feed stores where medications, including antimicrobials, are available over the counter. Despite a basic understanding of zoonotic disease risk, this study identified several factors, such as the handling and consumption of sick and dead animals and purchasing medications for sick animals over the counter, that potentially increase the risk of zoonotic disease transmission as well as the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance.
Author Notes
Financial support: Christopher Lowenstein, William F. Waters, Amira Roess and Jessica H. Leibler received no outside financial support for their work on this study. The efforts of Jay P. Graham were funded by HHS National Institutes of Health (NIH) (K01 TW 009484).
Authors' addresses: Christopher Lowenstein, University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA, E-mail: chris.lowenstein@berkeley.edu. William F. Waters, Institute for Research in Health and Nutrition, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador, E-mail: wwaters@usfq.edu.ec. Amira Roess, Department of Global Health, School of Public Health and Health Services, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, E-mail: aroess@gwu.edu. Jessica H. Leibler, Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, E-mail: jleibler@bu.edu. Jay P. Graham, Public Health Institute, Oakland, CA, E-mail: jay.graham@phi.org.
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Materials and Methods
- Results
- Purpose of raising livestock.
- Changes in animal stock over time.
- Use of balanceado (commercial animal feed).
- Knowledge of antibiotics in balanceado.
- Animal health-care practices.
- Knowledge and perceptions of large-scale commercial farms.
- Knowledge and perception of zoonotic disease transmission.
- Hygiene practices.
- Discussion
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Liu L, Oza S, Hogan D, Perin J, Rudan I, Lawn JE, Cousens S, Mathers C, Black RE, 2015. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2000–13, with projections to inform post-2015 priorities: an updated systematic analysis. Lancet 385: 430–440.
-
2.
Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S, Perin J, Scott S, Lawn JE, Rudan I, Campbell H, Cibulskis R, Li M, Mathers C, 2012. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet 379: 2151–2161.
-
3.
Lee G, Pan W, Yori PP, Olortegui MP, Tilley D, Gregory M, Oberhelman R, Burga R, Chavez CB, Kosek M, 2013. Symptomatic and asymptomatic Campylobacter infections associated with reduced growth in Peruvian children. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7: e2036.
-
4.
Ngure FM, Humphrey JH, Mbuya MN, Majo F, Mutasa K, Govha M, Mazarura E, Chasekwa B, Prendergast AJ, Curtis V, Boor KJ, 2013. Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 709–716.
-
5.
Shivoga WA, Moturi WN, 2009. Geophagia as a risk factor for diarrhoea. J Infect Dev Ctries 3: 94–98.
-
6.
Grace D, Mutua F, Ochungo P, Kruska R, Jones K, Brierley L, Lapar L, Said M, Herrero M, Phuc PM, Thao NB, 2012. Mapping of Poverty and Likely Zoonoses Hotspots. Zoonoses Project 4. Report to Department for International Development, UK. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute.
-
7.
Goodwin R, Schley D, Lai KM, Ceddia GM, Barnett J, Cook N, 2012. Interdisciplinary approaches to zoonotic disease. Infect Dis Rep 4: e37.
-
8.
Montovani A, 2000. Veterinary urban hygiene in developing countries. Urban Agriculture Magazine 1: 32–33.
-
9.
Pica-Ciamarra U, Tasciotti L, Otte J, Zezza A, 2011. Livestock Assets, Livestock Income and Rural Households: Cross-Country Evidence from Household Surveys. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ESA Working Paper No. 11–17. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am724e/am724e00.pdf. Accessed August 11, 2015.
-
10.
National Statistical Service (Peru), Ministry of Health (Peru), ICF International, 2016. Peru Demographic and Health Survey 2008 (Dataset). Calverton, MD: National Statistical Service, Ministry of Health, ICF International.
-
11.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2011. The Place of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture (UPA) in National Food Security Programs. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2177e/i2177e00.pdf. Accessed August 11, 2015.
-
12.
Slingenbergh J, Gilbert M, Balogh KD, Wint W, 2014. Ecological sources of zoonotic diseases. Rev Sci Tech 23: 467–484.
-
13.
Zambrano LD, Levy K, Menezes NP, Freeman MC, 2014. Human diarrhea infections associated with domestic animal husbandry: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 108: 313–325.
-
14.
Hermans D, Pasmans F, Messens W, Martel A, Van Immerseel F, Rasschaert G, Heyndrickx M, Van Deun K, Haesebrouck F, 2012. Poultry as a host for the zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 12: 89–98.
-
15.
Oberhelman RA, Gilman RH, Sheen P, Cordova J, Taylor DN, Zimic M, Meza R, Perez J, LeBron C, Cabrera L, Rodgers FG, 2003. Campylobacter transmission in a Peruvian shantytown: a longitudinal study using strain typing of Campylobacter isolates from chickens and humans in household clusters. J Infect Dis 187: 260–269.
-
16.
Singh R, Yadav AS, Tripathi V, Singh RP, 2013. Antimicrobial resistance profile of Salmonella present in poultry and poultry environment in north India. Food Contr 33: 545–548.
-
17.
Al-Ghamdi MS, El-Morsy F, Al-Mustafa ZH, Al-Ramadhan M, Hanif M, 1999. Antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from poultry workers, patients and chicken in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Trop Med Int Health 4: 278–283.
-
18.
Belongia EA, Chyou PH, Greenlee RT, Perez-Perez G, Bibb WF, DeVries EO, 2003. Diarrhea incidence and farm-related risk factors for Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Campylobacter jejuni antibodies among rural children. J Infect Dis 187: 1460–1468.
-
19.
Locking ME, O'Brien SJ, Reilly WJ, Wright EM, Campbell DM, Coia JE, Browning LM, Ramsay CN, 2001. Risk factors for sporadic cases of Escherichia coli O157 infection: the importance of contact with animal excreta. Epidemiol Infect 127: 215–220.
-
20.
Mosites EM, Rabinowitz PM, Thumbi SM, Montgomery JM, Palmer GH, May S, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Neuhouser ML, Walson JL, 2015. The relationship between livestock ownership and child stunting in three countries in eastern Africa using national survey data. PLoS One 10: e0136686.
-
21.
Okeke IN, Laxminarayan R, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Klugman KP, 2005. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: recent trends and current status. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 481–493.
-
22.
Nugent R, Back E, Beith A, 2010. The Race Against Drug Resistance: A Report of the Center for Global Development's Drug Resistance Working Group. Center for Global Development. Available at http://www.cgdev.org/publication/race-against-drug-resistance. Accessed May 6, 2016.
-
23.
Landers TF, Cohen B, Wittum TE, Larson EL, 2012. A review of antibiotic use in food animals: perspective, policy and potential. Public Health Rep 127: 4–22.
-
24.
World Health Organization, 2012. The Evolving Threat of Antimicrobial Resistance: Options for Action. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Available at: http://www.who.int/patientsafety/implementation/amr/publication/en/. Accessed May 6, 2016.
-
25.
Gilchrist MJ, Greko C, Wallinga DB, Beran GW, Riley DG, Thorne PS, 2007. The potential role of concentrated animal feeding operations in infectious disease epidemics and antibiotic resistance. Environ Health Perspect 115: 313–316.
-
26.
Marshall BM, Levy SB, 2011. Food animals and antimicrobials: impacts on human health. Clin Microbiol Rev 24: 718–733.
-
27.
Wegener HC, 2003. Antibiotics in animal feed and their role in resistance development. Curr Opin Microbiol 6: 439–445.
-
28.
Allen HK, 2014. Antibiotic resistance gene discovery in food-producing animals. Curr Opin Microbiol 19: 25–29.
-
29.
O'Neill J, 2014. Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a Crisis for the Health and Wealth of Nations. The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance. London, United Kingdom.
-
30.
Byarugaba DK, 2014. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries and responsible risk factors. Int J Antimicrob Agents 24: 105–110.
-
31.
Okeke IN, Klugman KP, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Laxminarayan R, 2005. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 568–580.
-
32.
Planta MB, 2007. The role of poverty in antimicrobial resistance. J Am Board Fam Med 20: 533–539.
-
33.
Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Censos, 2010. Results from the 2010 Census. Available at: http://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/resultados/. Accessed August 25, 2015.
-
34.
Vasco K, Graham J, Trueba G, 2016. Detection of zoonotic enteropathogens in children and domestic animals in a semi-rural community in Ecuador. Appl Environ Microbiol 82: 4218–4224.
-
35.
Roess AA, Winch PJ, Ali NA, Akhter A, Afroz D, El Arifeen S, Darmstadt GL, Baqui AH, Bangladesh PROJAHNMO Study Group, 2013. Animal husbandry practices in rural Bangladesh: potential risk factors for antimicrobial drug resistance and emerging diseases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 965–970.
-
36.
Somphou P, Takano T, Nakamura K, 2008. Cohabitation with farm animals in urban households with and without occupational farm work: associations between participation in educational activities and good hygiene practices in at-risk households cohabitating with farm animals. Environ Health Prev Med 13: 322–331.
-
37.
Harvey SA, Winch PJ, Leontsini E, Gayoso CT, Romero SL, Gilman RH, Oberhelman RA, 2003. Domestic poultry-raising practices in a Peruvian shantytown: implications for control of Campylobacter jejuni-associated diarrhea. Acta Trop 86: 41–54.
-
38.
Pell AN, 1997. Manure and microbes: public and animal health problem? J Dairy Sci 80: 2673–2681.
-
39.
Curtis V, Schmidt W, Luby S, Florez R, Touré O, Biran A, 2011. Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons. Lancet Infect Dis 11: 312–321.
-
40.
Weiss RA, McMichael AJ, 2004. Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nat Med 20: s70–s76.
-
41.
Liverani M, Waage J, Barnett T, Pfeiffer DU, Rushton J, Rudge JW, Loevinsohn ME, Scoones I, Smith RD, Cooper BS, White LJ, Goh S, Horby P, Wren B, Gundogdu O, Woods A, Coker RJ, 2013. Understanding and managing zoonotic risk in the new livestock industries. Environ Health Perspect 121: 873–877.
-
42.
Graham JP, Price LB, Evans SL, Graczyk TK, Silbergeld EK, 2009. Antibiotic resistant enterococci and staphylococci isolated from flies collected near confined poultry feeding operations. Sci Total Environ 407: 2701–2710.
-
43.
Charmaz K, 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis. London, United Kingdom: SAGE Publications, Inc.
-
44.
Isaacs AN, 2014. An overview of qualitative research methodology for public health researchers. Int J Med Public Health 4: 318–323.
-
45.
NVivo qualitative data analysis Software; QSR International Pty Ltd. Version 10, 2014. Melbourne, Australia.
-
46.
Bhandari DP, Wollen TS, 2008. Community-based animal health care. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1149: 9–11.
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