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-
1
Boschi-Pinto C, Velebit L, Shibuya K, 2008. Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bull World Health Organ 86 :710–717.
-
2
Rudan I, Boschi-Pinto C, Biloglav Z, Mulholland K, Campbell H, 2008. Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86 :408–416.
-
3
Stanton BF, Clemens JD, 1987. An educational intervention for altering water-sanitation behaviors to reduce childhood diarrhea in urban Bangladesh. II. A randomized trial to assess the impact of the intervention on hygienic behaviors and rates of diarrhea. Am J Epidemiol 125 :292–301.
-
4
Pinfold JV, Horan NJ, 1996. Measuring the effect of a hygiene behaviour intervention by indicators of behaviour and diarrhoeal disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90 :366–371.
-
5
Han AM, Hlaing T, 1989. Prevention of diarrhoea and dysentery by hand washing. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 83 :128–131.
-
6
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Altaf A, Billhimer WL, Hoekstra RM, 2004. Effect of intensive handwashing promotion on childhood diarrhea in high-risk communities in Pakistan: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291 :2547–2554.
-
7
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Feikin DR, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, Hoekstra RM, 2005. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 366 :225–233.
-
8
Omotade OO, Kayode CM, Adeyemo AA, Oladepo O, 1995. Observations on handwashing practices of mothers and environmental conditions in Ona-Ara Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 13 :224–228.
-
9
Biran A, Rabie T, Schmidt W, Juvekar S, Hirve S, Curtis V, 2008. Comparing the performance of indicators of handwashing practices in rural Indian households. Trop Med Int Health 13 :278–285.
-
10
Curtis V, Kanki B, Cousens S, Diallo I, Kpozehouen A, Sangare M, Nikiema M, 2001. Evidence of behaviour change following a hygiene promotion programme in Burkina Faso. Bull World Health Organ 79 :518–527.
-
11
Gilman RH, Marquis GS, Ventura G, Campos M, Spira W, Diaz F, 1993. Water cost and availability: key determinants of family hygiene in a Peruvian shantytown. Am J Public Health 83 :1554–1558.
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12
Luby SP, Halder AK, 2008. Associations among handwashing indicators, wealth, and symptoms of childhood respiratory illness in urban Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 13 :835–844.
-
13
World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2008. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: Special Focus on Sanitation. New York: WHO/UNICEF.
-
14
Zeitlyn S, Islam F, 1991. The use of soap and water in two Bangladeshi communities: implications for the transmission of diarrhea. Rev Infect Dis 13 (Suppl 4):S259–S264.
-
15
Hoque BA, 2003. Handwashing practices and challenges in Bangladesh. Int J Environ Health Res 13 (Suppl 1):S81–S87.
-
16
Hanley JA, Negassa A, Edwardes MD, Forrester JE, 2003. Statistical analysis of correlated data using generalized estimating equations: an orientation. Am J Epidemiol 157 :364–375.
-
17
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21 :459–468.
-
18
Barros AJD, Victoria CG, 2005. A nationwide wealth score based on the 2000 Brazilian demographic census. Rev Saude Publica 39 :1–6.
-
19
Houweling TA, Kunst AE, Mackenbach JP, 2003. Measuring health inequality among children in developing countries: does the choice of the indicator of economic status matter? Int J Equity Health 2 :8.
-
20
Kaplan LM, McGuckin M, 1986. Increasing handwashing compliance with more accessible sinks. Infect Control 7 :408–410.
-
21
Graham M, 1990. Frequency and duration of handwashing in an intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 18 :77–81.
-
22
Bischoff WE, Reynolds TM, Sessler CN, Edmond MB, Wenzel RP, 2000. Handwashing compliance by health care workers: the impact of introducing an accessible, alcohol-based hand antiseptic. Arch Intern Med 160 :1017–1021.
-
23
Sallis JF, Owen N, Fisher EB, 2008. Ecological models of health behavior. Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, eds. Health Behavior and Health Education. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass, 465–485.
-
24
Manun’Ebo M, Cousens S, Haggerty P, Kalengaie M, Ashworth A, Kirkwood B, 1997. Measuring hygiene practices: a comparison of questionnaires with direct observations in rural Zaire. Trop Med Int Health 2 :1015–1021.
-
25
Stanton BF, Clemens JD, Aziz KM, Rahman M, 1987. Twenty-four-hour recall, knowledge-attitude-practice questionnaires, and direct observations of sanitary practices: a comparative study. Bull World Health Organ 65 :217–222.
-
26
Curtis V, Cousens S, Mertens T, Traore E, Kanki B, Diallo I, 1993. Structured observations of hygiene behaviours in Burkina Faso: validity, variability, and utility. Bull World Health Organ 71 :23–32.
-
27
Pinfold JV, 1990. Faecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faecooral disease transmission. II. A hygiene intervention study in rural north-east Thailand. Epidemiol Infect 105 :377–389.
-
28
Kaltenthaler E, Waterman R, Cross P, 1991. Faecal indicator bacteria on the hands and the effectiveness of handwashing in Zimbabwe. J Trop Med Hyg 94 :358–363.
-
29
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Billhimer W, Hoekstra RM, 2007. Field trial of a low cost method to evaluate hand cleanliness. Trop Med Int Health 12 :765–771.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 504 | 413 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 456 | 6 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 215 | 6 | 0 |
Household Characteristics Associated with Handwashing with Soap in Rural Bangladesh
Stephen P. Luby
Stephen P. Luby
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Water and Environmental Sanitation Section, UNICEF Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Amal K. Halder
Amal K. Halder
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Water and Environmental Sanitation Section, UNICEF Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Carole Tronchet
Carole Tronchet
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Water and Environmental Sanitation Section, UNICEF Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Shamima Akhter
Shamima Akhter
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Water and Environmental Sanitation Section, UNICEF Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Abbas Bhuiya
Abbas Bhuiya
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Water and Environmental Sanitation Section, UNICEF Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Richard B. Johnston
Richard B. Johnston
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Water and Environmental Sanitation Section, UNICEF Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Handwashing with soap prevents diarrhea and respiratory disease, but it is rarely practiced in high-need settings. Among 100 randomly selected villages in rural Bangladesh, field workers enrolled 10 households per village and observed and recorded household activities for 5 hours. Field workers observed 761 handwashing opportunities among household members in 527 households who had just defecated or who cleaned a child’s anus who had defecated. In the final multivariate analysis, having water available at the place to wash hands after toileting (odds ratio = 2.2, 95% confidence interval 1.3, 4.0) and having soap available at the place to wash hands after toileting (odds ratio = 2.1, 95% confidence interval 1.3, 3.4) were associated with washing both hands with soap after fecal contact. Interventions that improve the presence of water and soap at the designated place to wash hands would be expected to improve handwashing behavior and health.
Author Notes
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-
1
Boschi-Pinto C, Velebit L, Shibuya K, 2008. Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bull World Health Organ 86 :710–717.
-
2
Rudan I, Boschi-Pinto C, Biloglav Z, Mulholland K, Campbell H, 2008. Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86 :408–416.
-
3
Stanton BF, Clemens JD, 1987. An educational intervention for altering water-sanitation behaviors to reduce childhood diarrhea in urban Bangladesh. II. A randomized trial to assess the impact of the intervention on hygienic behaviors and rates of diarrhea. Am J Epidemiol 125 :292–301.
-
4
Pinfold JV, Horan NJ, 1996. Measuring the effect of a hygiene behaviour intervention by indicators of behaviour and diarrhoeal disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90 :366–371.
-
5
Han AM, Hlaing T, 1989. Prevention of diarrhoea and dysentery by hand washing. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 83 :128–131.
-
6
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Altaf A, Billhimer WL, Hoekstra RM, 2004. Effect of intensive handwashing promotion on childhood diarrhea in high-risk communities in Pakistan: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291 :2547–2554.
-
7
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Feikin DR, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, Hoekstra RM, 2005. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 366 :225–233.
-
8
Omotade OO, Kayode CM, Adeyemo AA, Oladepo O, 1995. Observations on handwashing practices of mothers and environmental conditions in Ona-Ara Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 13 :224–228.
-
9
Biran A, Rabie T, Schmidt W, Juvekar S, Hirve S, Curtis V, 2008. Comparing the performance of indicators of handwashing practices in rural Indian households. Trop Med Int Health 13 :278–285.
-
10
Curtis V, Kanki B, Cousens S, Diallo I, Kpozehouen A, Sangare M, Nikiema M, 2001. Evidence of behaviour change following a hygiene promotion programme in Burkina Faso. Bull World Health Organ 79 :518–527.
-
11
Gilman RH, Marquis GS, Ventura G, Campos M, Spira W, Diaz F, 1993. Water cost and availability: key determinants of family hygiene in a Peruvian shantytown. Am J Public Health 83 :1554–1558.
-
12
Luby SP, Halder AK, 2008. Associations among handwashing indicators, wealth, and symptoms of childhood respiratory illness in urban Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 13 :835–844.
-
13
World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2008. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: Special Focus on Sanitation. New York: WHO/UNICEF.
-
14
Zeitlyn S, Islam F, 1991. The use of soap and water in two Bangladeshi communities: implications for the transmission of diarrhea. Rev Infect Dis 13 (Suppl 4):S259–S264.
-
15
Hoque BA, 2003. Handwashing practices and challenges in Bangladesh. Int J Environ Health Res 13 (Suppl 1):S81–S87.
-
16
Hanley JA, Negassa A, Edwardes MD, Forrester JE, 2003. Statistical analysis of correlated data using generalized estimating equations: an orientation. Am J Epidemiol 157 :364–375.
-
17
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21 :459–468.
-
18
Barros AJD, Victoria CG, 2005. A nationwide wealth score based on the 2000 Brazilian demographic census. Rev Saude Publica 39 :1–6.
-
19
Houweling TA, Kunst AE, Mackenbach JP, 2003. Measuring health inequality among children in developing countries: does the choice of the indicator of economic status matter? Int J Equity Health 2 :8.
-
20
Kaplan LM, McGuckin M, 1986. Increasing handwashing compliance with more accessible sinks. Infect Control 7 :408–410.
-
21
Graham M, 1990. Frequency and duration of handwashing in an intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 18 :77–81.
-
22
Bischoff WE, Reynolds TM, Sessler CN, Edmond MB, Wenzel RP, 2000. Handwashing compliance by health care workers: the impact of introducing an accessible, alcohol-based hand antiseptic. Arch Intern Med 160 :1017–1021.
-
23
Sallis JF, Owen N, Fisher EB, 2008. Ecological models of health behavior. Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, eds. Health Behavior and Health Education. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass, 465–485.
-
24
Manun’Ebo M, Cousens S, Haggerty P, Kalengaie M, Ashworth A, Kirkwood B, 1997. Measuring hygiene practices: a comparison of questionnaires with direct observations in rural Zaire. Trop Med Int Health 2 :1015–1021.
-
25
Stanton BF, Clemens JD, Aziz KM, Rahman M, 1987. Twenty-four-hour recall, knowledge-attitude-practice questionnaires, and direct observations of sanitary practices: a comparative study. Bull World Health Organ 65 :217–222.
-
26
Curtis V, Cousens S, Mertens T, Traore E, Kanki B, Diallo I, 1993. Structured observations of hygiene behaviours in Burkina Faso: validity, variability, and utility. Bull World Health Organ 71 :23–32.
-
27
Pinfold JV, 1990. Faecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faecooral disease transmission. II. A hygiene intervention study in rural north-east Thailand. Epidemiol Infect 105 :377–389.
-
28
Kaltenthaler E, Waterman R, Cross P, 1991. Faecal indicator bacteria on the hands and the effectiveness of handwashing in Zimbabwe. J Trop Med Hyg 94 :358–363.
-
29
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Billhimer W, Hoekstra RM, 2007. Field trial of a low cost method to evaluate hand cleanliness. Trop Med Int Health 12 :765–771.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 504 | 413 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 456 | 6 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 215 | 6 | 0 |