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Molecular Characterization Reveals Diverse and Unknown Malaria Vectors in the Western Kenyan Highlands
Brandyce St. Laurent
Brandyce St. Laurent
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Mary Cooke
Mary Cooke
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Sindhu M. Krishnankutty
Sindhu M. Krishnankutty
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Puji Asih
Puji Asih
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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John D. Mueller
John D. Mueller
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Samuel Kahindi
Samuel Kahindi
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Elizabeth Ayoma
Elizabeth Ayoma
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Robin M. Oriango
Robin M. Oriango
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Julie Thumloup
Julie Thumloup
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Chris Drakeley
Chris Drakeley
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Jonathan Cox
Jonathan Cox
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Frank H. Collins
Frank H. Collins
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Neil F. Lobo
Neil F. Lobo
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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Jennifer C. Stevenson
Jennifer C. Stevenson
Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya; Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, Montana; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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The success of mosquito-based malaria control is dependent upon susceptible bionomic traits in local malaria vectors. It is crucial to have accurate and reliable methods to determine mosquito species composition in areas subject to malaria. An unexpectedly diverse set of Anopheles species was collected in the western Kenyan highlands, including unidentified and potentially new species carrying the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. This study identified 2,340 anopheline specimens using both ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer region 2 and mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 loci. Seventeen distinct sequence groups were identified. Of these, only eight could be molecularly identified through comparison to published and voucher sequences. Of the unidentified species, four were found to carry P. falciparum by circumsporozoite enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction, the most abundant of which had infection rates comparable to a primary vector in the area, Anopheles funestus. High-quality adult specimens of these unidentified species could not be matched to museum voucher specimens or conclusively identified using multiple keys, suggesting that they may have not been previously described. These unidentified vectors were captured outdoors. Diverse and unknown species have been incriminated in malaria transmission in the western Kenya highlands using molecular identification of unusual morphological variants of field specimens. This study demonstrates the value of using molecular methods to compliment vector identifications and highlights the need for accurate characterization of mosquito species and their associated behaviors for effective malaria control.
Author Notes
Financial support: This project was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation under the Malaria Transmission Consortium grant no. 45114. This article has been approved by the Director of the Kenya Medical Research Institute.
Authors' addresses: Brandyce St. Laurent, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, and Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, E-mail: brandyce.stlaurent@nih.gov. Mary Cooke, Chris Drakeley, and Jonathan Cox, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom, E-mails: mary_cooke@hotmail.com, chris.drakeley@lshtm.ac.uk, and jonathan.cox@lshtm.ac.uk. Sindhu M. Krishnankutty, Western Triangle Research Center, Montana State University, Conrad, MT, E-mail: oriolealis@gmail.com. Puji Asih, Department of Malaria, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jakarta, Indonesia, E-mail: puji@eijkman.go.id. John D. Mueller, Julie Thumloup, Frank H. Collins, and Neil F. Lobo, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, E-mails: jmuelle8@alumni.nd.edu, juliethumloup@hotmail.com, frank@nd.edu, and nlobo@nd.edu. Samuel Kahindi, Elizabeth Ayoma, and Robin M. Oriango, Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Kisumu, Kenya, E-mails: kahindisamuel@gmail.com, bettynyawera@yahoo.com, and robinmigiro@rocketmail.com. Jennifer C. Stevenson, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Malaria Research Institute, E-mail: jennyc.stevenson@macharesearch.org.
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