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Reference Manager
BibTeX
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EndNote
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1.
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2.
Gage KL, Kosoy MY, 2005. Natural history of plague: perspectives from more than a century of research. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 505–528.
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Moore SM, Monaghan A, Griffith KS, Apangu T, Mead PS, Eisen RJ, 2012. Improvement of disease prediction and modeling through the use of meteorological ensembles: human plague in Uganda. PLoS ONE 7: e44431.
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Borchert JN, Eisen RJ, Holmes JL, Atiku LA, Mpanga JT, Brown HE, Graham CB, Babi N, Montenieri JA, Enscore RE, Gage KL, 2012. Evaluation and modification of off-host flea collection techniques used in northwest Uganda: laboratory and field studies. J Med Entomol 49: 210–214.
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Mehlhorn H, D'Haese J, Vobis M, Mencke N, 2005. No molecular indications for the occurrence of subspecies in the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Ctenocephalidae). Entomol Gen 27: 295–301.
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Kilonzo BS, 1980. Studies on determining the involvement of domestic animals in plague epidemiology in Tanzania. Tanzanian Veterinary Bulletin 2: 37–44.
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Psaroulaki A, Antoniou M, Papaeustathiou A, Toumazos P, Loukaides F, Tselentis Y, 2006. First detection of Rickettsia felis in Ctenocephalides felis fleas parasitizing rats in Cyprus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74: 120–122.
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Pet'ko B, 1993. Domestic cats as a source of human flea infestations in towns. Cesk Epidemiol Mikrobiol Imunol 42: 190–191.
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Winters AM, Staples JE, Ogen-Odoi A, Mead PS, Griffith K, Owor N, Babi N, Enscore RE, Eisen L, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Spatial risk models for human plague in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 1014–1022.
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Blood Meal Identification in Off-Host Cat Fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) from a Plague-Endemic Region of Uganda
Christine B. Graham
Christine B. Graham
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Jeff N. Borchert
Jeff N. Borchert
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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William C. Black IV
William C. Black IV
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Linda A. Atiku
Linda A. Atiku
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Joseph T. Mpanga
Joseph T. Mpanga
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Karen A. Boegler
Karen A. Boegler
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Sean M. Moore
Sean M. Moore
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Kenneth L. Gage
Kenneth L. Gage
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Rebecca J. Eisen
Rebecca J. Eisen
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, is an inefficient vector of the plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) and is the predominant off-host flea species in human habitations in the West Nile region, an established plague focus in northwest Uganda. To determine if C. felis might serve as a Y. pestis bridging vector in the West Nile region, we collected on- and off-host fleas from human habitations and used a real-time polymerase chain reaction-based assay to estimate the proportion of off-host C. felis that had fed on humans and the proportion that had fed on potentially infectious rodents or shrews. Our findings indicate that cat fleas in human habitations in the West Nile region feed primarily on domesticated species. We conclude that C. felis is unlikely to serve as a Y. pestis bridging vector in this region.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Christine B. Graham, Jeff N. Borchert, Karen A. Boegler, Sean M. Moore, Kenneth L. Gage, and Rebecca J. Eisen, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, E-mails: cgraham@cdc.gov, gqx1@ug.cdc.gov, kje5@cdc.gov, kfy0@cdc.gov, klg0@cdc.gov, and dyn2@cdc.gov. William C. Black IV, Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology Department, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, E-mail: william.black@colostate.edu. Linda A. Atiku and Joseph T. Mpanga, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda, E-mails: l_atikupraise@yahoo.com and joe1ug@msn.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Butler T, 2009. Plague into the 21st Century. Clin Infect Dis 49: 736–742.
-
2.
Gage KL, Kosoy MY, 2005. Natural history of plague: perspectives from more than a century of research. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 505–528.
-
3.
Gratz NG, 1999. Control of plague transmission. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 97–134.
-
4.
Borchert JN, Mach JJ, Linder TJ, Ogen-Odoi A, Angualia S, 2007. Invasive rats and bubonic plague in northwest Uganda. Witmer GW, Pitt WC, Fagerstone A, eds. Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species: Proceedings of an International Symposium. Fort Collins, CO: USDA/APHIS Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, 283–293.
-
5.
Moore SM, Monaghan A, Griffith KS, Apangu T, Mead PS, Eisen RJ, 2012. Improvement of disease prediction and modeling through the use of meteorological ensembles: human plague in Uganda. PLoS ONE 7: e44431.
-
6.
Tikhomirov E, 1999. Epidemiology and distribution of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 11–42.
-
7.
Craven RB, Maupin GO, Beard ML, Quan TJ, Barnes AM, 1993. Reported cases of human plague infections in the United States, 1970–1991. J Med Entomol 30: 758–761.
-
8.
Hopkins GHE, 1949. Report on Rats, Fleas and Plague in Uganda. Uganda: Government Printer of Uganda.
-
9.
Kilonzo BS, 1992. Observations on the epidemiology of plague in Tanzania during the period 1974–1988. East Afr Med J 69: 494–499.
-
10.
Gratz NG, 1999. Rodent reservoirs and flea vectors of natural foci of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 63–96.
-
11.
Laudisoit A, Leirs H, Makundi RH, Van Dongen S, Davis S, Neerinckx S, Deckers J, Libois R, 2007. Plague and the human flea, Tanzania. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 687–693.
-
12.
Kilonzo BS, Makundi RH, Mbise TJ, 1992. A decade of plague epidemiology and control in the western Usambara Mountains, north-east Tanzania. Acta Trop 50: 323–329.
-
13.
Guiguen C, Beaucournu JC, 1979. Presence of Pulex irritans L. (Siphonaptera) in Burundi, plague risk area. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 72: 481–486.
-
14.
Karimi Y, Farhang-Azad A, 1974. Pulex irritans, a human flea in the plague infection focus at General Mobutu Lake (formerly Lake Albert): epidemiologic significance. Bull World Health Organ 50: 564–565.
-
15.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Holmes JL, Amatre G, Van Wyk K, Enscore RE, Babi N, Atiku LA, Wilder AP, Vetter SM, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) and their potential role as vectors in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 949–956.
-
16.
Borchert JN, Eisen RJ, Holmes JL, Atiku LA, Mpanga JT, Brown HE, Graham CB, Babi N, Montenieri JA, Enscore RE, Gage KL, 2012. Evaluation and modification of off-host flea collection techniques used in northwest Uganda: laboratory and field studies. J Med Entomol 49: 210–214.
-
17.
Hopkins GHE, 1947. Annotated and illustrated keys to the known fleas of East Africa. Uganda J 11: 133–190.
-
18.
Lewis RE, 1972. Notes on the geographical distribution and host preferences in the order Siphonaptera. 1. Pulicidae. J Med Entomol 9: 511–520.
-
19.
Vobis M, D'Haese J, Mehlhorn H, Mencke N, Blagburn B, Bond R, Denholm I, Dryden MW, Payne P, Rust MK, Schroeder I, Vaughn MB, Bledsoe D, 2004. Molecular phylogeny of isolates of Ctenocephalides felis and related species based on analysis of ITS1, ITS2 and mitochondrial 16S rDNA sequences and random binding primers. Parasitol Res 94: 219–226.
-
20.
Mehlhorn H, D'Haese J, Vobis M, Mencke N, 2005. No molecular indications for the occurrence of subspecies in the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Ctenocephalidae). Entomol Gen 27: 295–301.
-
21.
Kilonzo BS, 1980. Studies on determining the involvement of domestic animals in plague epidemiology in Tanzania. Tanzanian Veterinary Bulletin 2: 37–44.
-
22.
Dipeolu OO, Ayoade GO, 1982. Various hosts of Ctenocephalides felis strongylus. Vet Q 4: 191–192.
-
23.
Fagbemi BO, 1982. Effect of Ctenocephalides felis strongylus infestation on the performance of West African dwarf sheep and goats. Vet Q 4: 92–95.
-
24.
Rust MK, Dryden MW, 1997. The biology, ecology, and management of the cat flea. Annu Rev Entomol 42: 451–473.
-
25.
Kilonzo BS, Gisakanyi ND, Sabuni CA, 1993. Involvement of dogs in plague epidemiology in Tanzania. Serological observations in domestic animals in Lushoto District. Scand J Infect Dis 25: 503–506.
-
26.
Kaal JF, Baker K, Torgerson PR, 2006. Epidemiology of flea infestation of ruminants in Libya. Vet Parasitol 141: 313–318.
-
27.
Psaroulaki A, Antoniou M, Papaeustathiou A, Toumazos P, Loukaides F, Tselentis Y, 2006. First detection of Rickettsia felis in Ctenocephalides felis fleas parasitizing rats in Cyprus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74: 120–122.
-
28.
Pet'ko B, 1993. Domestic cats as a source of human flea infestations in towns. Cesk Epidemiol Mikrobiol Imunol 42: 190–191.
-
29.
Woods ME, Montenieri JA, Eisen RJ, Zeidner NS, Borchert JN, Laudisoit A, Babi N, Atiku LA, Enscore RE, Gage KL, 2009. Identification of flea blood meals using multiplexed real-time polymerase chain reaction targeting mitochondrial gene fragments. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 998–1003.
-
30.
Hunter KW Jr, Campbell AR, Sayles PC, 1979. Human infestation by cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae), from suburban raccoons. J Med Entomol 16: 547.
-
31.
Amatre G, Babi N, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Atiku LA, Akol A, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Flea diversity and infestation prevalence on rodents in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 718–724.
-
32.
Winters AM, Staples JE, Ogen-Odoi A, Mead PS, Griffith K, Owor N, Babi N, Enscore RE, Eisen L, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Spatial risk models for human plague in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 1014–1022.
-
33.
Borchert JN, Enscore RE, Eisen RJ, Atiku LA, Owor N, Acayo S, Babi N, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2010. Evaluation of rodent bait containing imidacloprid for the control of fleas on commensal rodents in a plague-endemic region of northwest Uganda. J Med Entomol 47: 842–850.
-
34.
Kilonzo BS, 1977. A simple light trap for field collection of adult fleas: studies on its efficiency and suitability in north-east Tanzania. WHO/VBC/77.673, 11. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
35.
Borchert JN, Eisen RJ, Atiku LA, Delorey MJ, Mpanga JT, Babi N, Enscore RE, Gage K, 2012. Efficacy of indoor residual spraying using lambda-cyhalothrin for controlling non-target vector fleas (Siphonaptera) on commensal rats in a plague endemic region of northwest Uganda. J Med Entomol 49: 1027–1034.
-
36.
Delany MJ, 1975. The Rodents of Uganda. Kettering Northamptonshire: The George Press.
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