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RefWorks
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BibTeX
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-
1
Bharti AR, Nally JE, Ricaldi JN, Matthias MA, Diaz MM, Lovett MA, Levett PN, Gilman RH, Willig MR, Gotuzzo E, Vinetz JM, 2003. Leptospirosis: a zoonotic disease of global importance. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :757–771.
-
2
Levett PN, 2001. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 14 :296–326.
-
3
Ricaldi J, Vinetz JM, 2006. Leptospirosis in the tropics and in travelers. Curr Infect Dis Rep 8 :51–58.
-
4
Spichler A, Moock M, Chapola EG, Vinetz JM, 2005. Weil’s disease: an unusually fulminant presentation characterized by pulmonary hemorrhage and shock. Braz J Infect Dis 9 :336–340.
-
5
De Brito T, Freymuller E, Hoshino S, Penna DO, 1966. Pathology of the kidney and liver in the experimental leptospirosis of the guinea-pig. A light and electron microscopy study. Virchows Arch Pathol Anat Physiol Klin Med 341 :64–78.
-
6
Nally JE, Chantranuwat C, Wu XY, Fishbein MC, Pereira MM, Da Silva JJ, Blanco DR, Lovett MA, 2004. Alveolar septal deposition of immunoglobulin and complement parallels pulmonary hemorrhage in a guinea pig model of severe pulmonary leptospirosis. Am J Pathol 164 :1115–1127.
-
7
Oliva R, Infante JF, Gonzalez M, Perez V, Sifontes S, Marrero O, Valdes Y, Farinas M, Esteves L, Gonzalez I, 1994. Pathologic-clinical characterization of leptospirosis in a golden Syrian hamster model. Arch Med Res 25 :165–170.
-
8
Seguro AC, Lomar AV, Rocha AS, 1990. Acute renal failure of leptospirosis: nonoliguric and hypokalemic forms. Nephron 55 :146–151.
-
9
Yang CW, Wu MS, Pan MJ, 2001. Leptospirosis renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 16 :73–77.
-
10
Sitprija V, Kearkiat P, 2005. Nephropathy in leptospirosis. J Post-grad Med 51 :184–188.
-
11
Abdulkader RCRM, Seguro A, Malheiro PS, Burdman EA, Marcondes M, 1996. Peculiar eletrolytic and hormonal abnormalities in acute renal failure due to Leptospirosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 :1–6.
-
12
Covic A, Goldsmith DJ, Gusbeth-Tatomir P, Seica A, Covic M, 2003. A retrospective 5-year study in Moldova of acute renal failure due to leptospirosis: 58 cases and a review of the literature. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18 :1128–1134.
-
13
Marotto PCF, Nascimento CM, Eluf-Neto J, Marotto MS, Andrade L, Sztajnbok J, Seguro AC, 1999. Acute lung injury in leptospirosis: clinical and laboratory features, outcome, and factors associated with mortality. Clin Infect Dis 29 :1561–1563.
-
14
Sitiprija V, 2006. Renal Dysfunction in leptospirosis: a view from the tropics. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 12 :658–659.
-
15
Barnett JK, Barnett D, Bolin CA, Summers TA, Wagar EA, Cheville NF, Hartskeerl RA, Haake DA, 1999. Expression and distribution of leptospiral outer membrane components during renal infection of hamsters. Infect Immun 67 :853–861.
-
16
Yang CW, Wu MS, Pan MJ, Hong JJ, Yu CC, Vandewalle A, Huang CC, 2000. Leptospira outer membrane protein activates NF-κB and downstream genes expressed in medullary thick ascending limb cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 11 :2017–2026.
-
17
Spichler A, Shimizu M, Seguro AC, 2005. Oxidative stress in leptospiroses: first report. In: Congresso da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical: Encontro de Medicina Tropical do Cone Sul, 2005. Florianópolis: Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 459.
-
18
Zafarullah M, Li WQ, Ahmad M, 2003. Molecular mechanisms of N-acetylcysteine actions. Review. Cell Mol Life Sci 60 :6–20.
-
19
Wu M, Yang C, Pan M, Chang C, Chen Y, 2004. Reduced renal Na+-K+-Cl− co-transporter activity and inhibited NKCC2 mRNA expression by Leptospira shermani: from bed-side to bench. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19 :2472–2479.
-
20
Andrade L, Rodrigues AC Jr, Sanches TR, Souza RB, Seguro AC, 2007. Leptospirosis leads to dysregulation of sodium transporters in the kidney and lung. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 292 :586–592.
-
21
Lin CL, Wu MS, Yang CW, Huang CC, 1999. Leptospirosis associated with hypokalaemia and thick ascending limb dysfunction. Nephrol Dial Transplant 14 :193–195.
-
22
Knepper MA, Brooks HL, 2001. Regulation of the sodium transporters NHE3, NKCC2, and NCC in the kidney. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 10 :655–659.
-
23
Elkjzer ML, Kwon TH, Wang W, Nielsen J, Knepper M, Froklzer J, Nielsen S, 2002. Altered expression of renal NHE3, TSC, BSC-1, and ENaC subunits in potassium-depleted rats. Am J Renal Physiol 283 :1376–1388.
-
24
Wang W, Know TH, Li C, Frokler J, Knepper M, Nielsen S, 2002. Reduced expression of Na-K-2Cl cotransporter in medullary TAL I vitamin D-induced hypercalcemia in rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 282 :F34–F44.
-
25
Younes-Ibrahim M, Buffin-Meyer B, Cheval L, Burth P, Castro-Faria MV, Barlet-Bas C, Marsy S, Doucet A, 1997. Na-K-ATPase: a molecular target for Leptospira interrogans endotoxin. Braz J Med Biol Res 30 :213–223.
-
26
WHO, 2003. Human Leptospirosis: Guidance for Diagnosis, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
27
Griffith ME, Hospenthal D, Murray CK, 2006. Antimicrobial therapy of leptospirosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 19 :533–537.
-
28
Alexander AD, Rule PL, 1986. Penicillins, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines in treatment of hamsters with fatal leptospirosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30 :835–839.
-
29
Truccolo J, Charavay F, Merien F, Perolat P, 2002. Quantitative PCR assay to evaluate ampicillin, ofloxacin, and doxycycline for treatment of experimental leptospirosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46 :848–853.
-
30
Panaphut T, Domrongkitchaiporn S, Vibhagool A, Thinkamrop B, Susaengrat W, 2003. Ceftriaxone compared with sodium penicillin g for treatment of severe leptospirosis. Clin Infect Dis 36 :1507–1513.
-
31
Suputtamongkol Y, Niwattayakul K, Suttinont C, Losuwanaluk K, Limpaiboon R, Chierakul W, Wuthiekanun V, Triengrim S, Chenchittikul M, White NJ, 2004. An open, randomized, controlled trial of penicillin, doxycycline, and cefotaxime for patients with severe leptospirosis. Clin Infect Dis 39 :1417–1424.
-
32
Costa E, Lopes AA, Sacramento E, Costa YA, Matos ED, Lopes MB, Bina JC, 2003. Penicillin at the late stage of leptospirosis: a randomized controlled trial. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 45 :141–145.
-
33
Daher E, Nogueira CB, 2000. Evaluation of penicillin therapy in patients with leptospirosis and acute renal failure. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 42 :327–332.
-
34
Ko AI, Galvao RM, Ribeiro DCM, Jonhson WD, Riley LW, 1999. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet 354 :820–825.
-
35
Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K, 1979. Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituric acid reaction. Anal Biochem 95 :351–358.
-
36
De Brito T, Prado MJBA, Negreiros VAC, Nicastri AL, Sakata EE, Yasuda PH, Santos RT, Alves VAF, 1992. Detection of leptospiral antigens (L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni sero-group Icterohaemorrhagiae) by immunoelectron microscopy in the liver and kidney of experimentally infected guinea-pigs. Int J Exp Pathol 73 :633–642.
-
37
Llama PF, Andrews P, Ecelbarger CA, Nielson S, Knepper M, 1998. Concentrating defect in experimental nephritic syndrome: altered expression of aquaporins and thick ascending limb Na+ transporters. Kidney Int 54 :170–179.
-
38
Kim GH, Ecelbarger CA, Mitchell C, Parker RK, Wade JB, Knepper MA, 1999. Vasopressin increases Na-K-2Cl cotransporter expression in thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 276 :F96–103.
-
39
Arean VM, 1962. Studies on the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. II. A clinicopathologic evaluation of hepatic and renal function in experimental leptospiral infections. Lab Invest 11 :273–288.
-
40
Davila de Arriaga AJ, Rocha AS, Yasuda PH, De Brito T, 1982. Morpho-functional patterns of kidney injury in the experimental leptospirosis of the guinea-pig (L. icterohaemorrhagiae). J Pathol 138 :145–161.
-
41
Faine S, Kaipainen WJ, 1955. Erythromycin in experimental leptospirosis. J Infect Dis 97 :146–151.
-
42
Arean VM, 1962. The pathologic anatomy and pathogenesis of fatal human leptospirosis (Weil’s disease). Am J Pathol 40 :393–423.
-
43
De Brito T, Menezes LF, Lima DM, Lourenco S, Silva AM, Alves VA, 2006. Immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization studies of the liver and kidney in human leptospirosis. Virchows Arch 448 :576–583.
-
44
Alt DP, Bolin CA, 1996. Preliminary evaluation of antimicrobial agents for treatment of Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona infection in hamsters and swine. Am J Vet Res 57 :59–62.
-
45
Miller NG, Allen JE, Wilson RB, 1974. The pathogenesis of hemorrhage in the lung of the hamster during acute leptospirosis. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 160 :269–278.
-
46
Segura ER, Ganoza CA, Campos K, Ricaldi JN, Torres S, Silva H, Cespedes MJ, Matthias MA, Swanvutt MA, Lopez Linan R, Gotuzzo E, Guerra H, Gilman RH, Vinetz JM, 2005. Clinical spectrum of pulmonary involvement in leptospirosis in a region of endemicity, with a quantification of leptospiral burden. Clin Infect Dis 40 :343–351.
-
47
Vinetz JM, 2003. A mountain out of a molehill: do we treat acute leptospirosis, and if so, with what? Clin Infect Dis 36 :1514–1515.
-
48
Burth P, Younes-Ibraim M, Santos MC, Castro-Faria Neto HC, de Castro Faria MV, 2005. Role of nonesterified unsaturated fatty acids in the pathophysiological processes of leptospiral infection. J Infect Dis 191 :51–57.
-
49
Maciel EAP, Athanazio DA, Reis EAG, Cunha FQ, Queiroz A, Almeida D, McBride AJ, Ko AI, Reis MG, 2006. High serum nitric oxide levels in patients with severe leptospirosis. Acta Trop 100 :256–260.
-
50
Watt G, Jongsakul K, Ruangvirayuth R, 2002. A pilot study of N-acetylcysteine as adjunctive therapy for severe malaria. Q J Med 95 :285–290.
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Reversal of Renal Tubule Transporter Downregulation during Severe Leptospirosis with Antimicrobial Therapy
Anne Spichler
Anne Spichler
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Albert I. Ko
Albert I. Ko
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Everton Fagonde Silva
Everton Fagonde Silva
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Thales De Brito
Thales De Brito
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Ana Maria Silva
Ana Maria Silva
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Daniel Athanazio
Daniel Athanazio
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Cleiton Silva
Cleiton Silva
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Antonio Seguro
Antonio Seguro
Department of Nephrology, LIM 12, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Centre, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Salvador, Brazil; Division of International Medicine and Infectious Disease, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York; Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil; Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Biointeraction, Federal University of Bahia, Health Sciences Institute, Salvador, Brazil
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Tubular dysfunction is a hallmark of severe leptospirosis. Antimicrobial therapy is thought to interfere on renal involvement. We evaluated the expression of a proximal tubule type-3 Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE3) and a thick ascending limb Na+-K+-2Cl− cotransporter (NKCC2) in controls and treated hamsters. Animals infected by a serovar Copenhageni isolate, were treated or not with ampicillin (AMP) and/or N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Leptospiral antigen(s) and expression of renal transporters were evaluated by immunohistochemistry, and serum thiobarbituric acid (TBARS) was quantified. Infected hamsters had high amounts of detectable leptospiral antigen(s) in target tissues while renal expression of NHE3 and NKCC2 decreased. Ampicillin treatment was associated with minimal or no detection of leptospiral antigens, normal expression of NHE3 and NKCC2 transporters, and reduced levels of TBARS. NAC effect was restricted to lowering TBARS. Early and late AMP treatment rescued tubular defects in severe leptospirosis disease, and there was no evidence of benefit from antioxidant therapy.
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-
1
Bharti AR, Nally JE, Ricaldi JN, Matthias MA, Diaz MM, Lovett MA, Levett PN, Gilman RH, Willig MR, Gotuzzo E, Vinetz JM, 2003. Leptospirosis: a zoonotic disease of global importance. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :757–771.
-
2
Levett PN, 2001. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 14 :296–326.
-
3
Ricaldi J, Vinetz JM, 2006. Leptospirosis in the tropics and in travelers. Curr Infect Dis Rep 8 :51–58.
-
4
Spichler A, Moock M, Chapola EG, Vinetz JM, 2005. Weil’s disease: an unusually fulminant presentation characterized by pulmonary hemorrhage and shock. Braz J Infect Dis 9 :336–340.
-
5
De Brito T, Freymuller E, Hoshino S, Penna DO, 1966. Pathology of the kidney and liver in the experimental leptospirosis of the guinea-pig. A light and electron microscopy study. Virchows Arch Pathol Anat Physiol Klin Med 341 :64–78.
-
6
Nally JE, Chantranuwat C, Wu XY, Fishbein MC, Pereira MM, Da Silva JJ, Blanco DR, Lovett MA, 2004. Alveolar septal deposition of immunoglobulin and complement parallels pulmonary hemorrhage in a guinea pig model of severe pulmonary leptospirosis. Am J Pathol 164 :1115–1127.
-
7
Oliva R, Infante JF, Gonzalez M, Perez V, Sifontes S, Marrero O, Valdes Y, Farinas M, Esteves L, Gonzalez I, 1994. Pathologic-clinical characterization of leptospirosis in a golden Syrian hamster model. Arch Med Res 25 :165–170.
-
8
Seguro AC, Lomar AV, Rocha AS, 1990. Acute renal failure of leptospirosis: nonoliguric and hypokalemic forms. Nephron 55 :146–151.
-
9
Yang CW, Wu MS, Pan MJ, 2001. Leptospirosis renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 16 :73–77.
-
10
Sitprija V, Kearkiat P, 2005. Nephropathy in leptospirosis. J Post-grad Med 51 :184–188.
-
11
Abdulkader RCRM, Seguro A, Malheiro PS, Burdman EA, Marcondes M, 1996. Peculiar eletrolytic and hormonal abnormalities in acute renal failure due to Leptospirosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 :1–6.
-
12
Covic A, Goldsmith DJ, Gusbeth-Tatomir P, Seica A, Covic M, 2003. A retrospective 5-year study in Moldova of acute renal failure due to leptospirosis: 58 cases and a review of the literature. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18 :1128–1134.
-
13
Marotto PCF, Nascimento CM, Eluf-Neto J, Marotto MS, Andrade L, Sztajnbok J, Seguro AC, 1999. Acute lung injury in leptospirosis: clinical and laboratory features, outcome, and factors associated with mortality. Clin Infect Dis 29 :1561–1563.
-
14
Sitiprija V, 2006. Renal Dysfunction in leptospirosis: a view from the tropics. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 12 :658–659.
-
15
Barnett JK, Barnett D, Bolin CA, Summers TA, Wagar EA, Cheville NF, Hartskeerl RA, Haake DA, 1999. Expression and distribution of leptospiral outer membrane components during renal infection of hamsters. Infect Immun 67 :853–861.
-
16
Yang CW, Wu MS, Pan MJ, Hong JJ, Yu CC, Vandewalle A, Huang CC, 2000. Leptospira outer membrane protein activates NF-κB and downstream genes expressed in medullary thick ascending limb cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 11 :2017–2026.
-
17
Spichler A, Shimizu M, Seguro AC, 2005. Oxidative stress in leptospiroses: first report. In: Congresso da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical: Encontro de Medicina Tropical do Cone Sul, 2005. Florianópolis: Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 459.
-
18
Zafarullah M, Li WQ, Ahmad M, 2003. Molecular mechanisms of N-acetylcysteine actions. Review. Cell Mol Life Sci 60 :6–20.
-
19
Wu M, Yang C, Pan M, Chang C, Chen Y, 2004. Reduced renal Na+-K+-Cl− co-transporter activity and inhibited NKCC2 mRNA expression by Leptospira shermani: from bed-side to bench. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19 :2472–2479.
-
20
Andrade L, Rodrigues AC Jr, Sanches TR, Souza RB, Seguro AC, 2007. Leptospirosis leads to dysregulation of sodium transporters in the kidney and lung. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 292 :586–592.
-
21
Lin CL, Wu MS, Yang CW, Huang CC, 1999. Leptospirosis associated with hypokalaemia and thick ascending limb dysfunction. Nephrol Dial Transplant 14 :193–195.
-
22
Knepper MA, Brooks HL, 2001. Regulation of the sodium transporters NHE3, NKCC2, and NCC in the kidney. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 10 :655–659.
-
23
Elkjzer ML, Kwon TH, Wang W, Nielsen J, Knepper M, Froklzer J, Nielsen S, 2002. Altered expression of renal NHE3, TSC, BSC-1, and ENaC subunits in potassium-depleted rats. Am J Renal Physiol 283 :1376–1388.
-
24
Wang W, Know TH, Li C, Frokler J, Knepper M, Nielsen S, 2002. Reduced expression of Na-K-2Cl cotransporter in medullary TAL I vitamin D-induced hypercalcemia in rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 282 :F34–F44.
-
25
Younes-Ibrahim M, Buffin-Meyer B, Cheval L, Burth P, Castro-Faria MV, Barlet-Bas C, Marsy S, Doucet A, 1997. Na-K-ATPase: a molecular target for Leptospira interrogans endotoxin. Braz J Med Biol Res 30 :213–223.
-
26
WHO, 2003. Human Leptospirosis: Guidance for Diagnosis, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
27
Griffith ME, Hospenthal D, Murray CK, 2006. Antimicrobial therapy of leptospirosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 19 :533–537.
-
28
Alexander AD, Rule PL, 1986. Penicillins, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines in treatment of hamsters with fatal leptospirosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30 :835–839.
-
29
Truccolo J, Charavay F, Merien F, Perolat P, 2002. Quantitative PCR assay to evaluate ampicillin, ofloxacin, and doxycycline for treatment of experimental leptospirosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46 :848–853.
-
30
Panaphut T, Domrongkitchaiporn S, Vibhagool A, Thinkamrop B, Susaengrat W, 2003. Ceftriaxone compared with sodium penicillin g for treatment of severe leptospirosis. Clin Infect Dis 36 :1507–1513.
-
31
Suputtamongkol Y, Niwattayakul K, Suttinont C, Losuwanaluk K, Limpaiboon R, Chierakul W, Wuthiekanun V, Triengrim S, Chenchittikul M, White NJ, 2004. An open, randomized, controlled trial of penicillin, doxycycline, and cefotaxime for patients with severe leptospirosis. Clin Infect Dis 39 :1417–1424.
-
32
Costa E, Lopes AA, Sacramento E, Costa YA, Matos ED, Lopes MB, Bina JC, 2003. Penicillin at the late stage of leptospirosis: a randomized controlled trial. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 45 :141–145.
-
33
Daher E, Nogueira CB, 2000. Evaluation of penicillin therapy in patients with leptospirosis and acute renal failure. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 42 :327–332.
-
34
Ko AI, Galvao RM, Ribeiro DCM, Jonhson WD, Riley LW, 1999. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet 354 :820–825.
-
35
Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K, 1979. Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituric acid reaction. Anal Biochem 95 :351–358.
-
36
De Brito T, Prado MJBA, Negreiros VAC, Nicastri AL, Sakata EE, Yasuda PH, Santos RT, Alves VAF, 1992. Detection of leptospiral antigens (L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni sero-group Icterohaemorrhagiae) by immunoelectron microscopy in the liver and kidney of experimentally infected guinea-pigs. Int J Exp Pathol 73 :633–642.
-
37
Llama PF, Andrews P, Ecelbarger CA, Nielson S, Knepper M, 1998. Concentrating defect in experimental nephritic syndrome: altered expression of aquaporins and thick ascending limb Na+ transporters. Kidney Int 54 :170–179.
-
38
Kim GH, Ecelbarger CA, Mitchell C, Parker RK, Wade JB, Knepper MA, 1999. Vasopressin increases Na-K-2Cl cotransporter expression in thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 276 :F96–103.
-
39
Arean VM, 1962. Studies on the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. II. A clinicopathologic evaluation of hepatic and renal function in experimental leptospiral infections. Lab Invest 11 :273–288.
-
40
Davila de Arriaga AJ, Rocha AS, Yasuda PH, De Brito T, 1982. Morpho-functional patterns of kidney injury in the experimental leptospirosis of the guinea-pig (L. icterohaemorrhagiae). J Pathol 138 :145–161.
-
41
Faine S, Kaipainen WJ, 1955. Erythromycin in experimental leptospirosis. J Infect Dis 97 :146–151.
-
42
Arean VM, 1962. The pathologic anatomy and pathogenesis of fatal human leptospirosis (Weil’s disease). Am J Pathol 40 :393–423.
-
43
De Brito T, Menezes LF, Lima DM, Lourenco S, Silva AM, Alves VA, 2006. Immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization studies of the liver and kidney in human leptospirosis. Virchows Arch 448 :576–583.
-
44
Alt DP, Bolin CA, 1996. Preliminary evaluation of antimicrobial agents for treatment of Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona infection in hamsters and swine. Am J Vet Res 57 :59–62.
-
45
Miller NG, Allen JE, Wilson RB, 1974. The pathogenesis of hemorrhage in the lung of the hamster during acute leptospirosis. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 160 :269–278.
-
46
Segura ER, Ganoza CA, Campos K, Ricaldi JN, Torres S, Silva H, Cespedes MJ, Matthias MA, Swanvutt MA, Lopez Linan R, Gotuzzo E, Guerra H, Gilman RH, Vinetz JM, 2005. Clinical spectrum of pulmonary involvement in leptospirosis in a region of endemicity, with a quantification of leptospiral burden. Clin Infect Dis 40 :343–351.
-
47
Vinetz JM, 2003. A mountain out of a molehill: do we treat acute leptospirosis, and if so, with what? Clin Infect Dis 36 :1514–1515.
-
48
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