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Reference Manager
BibTeX
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-
1
Young NA, Johnson KM, 1969. Antigenic variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: their geographic distribution and epidemiologic significance. Am J Epidemiol 89 :286–307.
-
2
Young NA, Johnson KM, Gauld LW, 1969. Viruses of the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis complex. Experimental infection of Panamanian rodents. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18 :290–296.
-
3
Young NA, 1972. Serologic differentiation of viruses of the Venezuelan encephalitis (VE) complex. Proc. Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, 84–89.
-
4
Rico-Hesse R, Weaver SC, de Siger J, Medina G, Salas RA, 1995. Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 :5278–5281.
-
5
Walton TE, Grayson MA, 1988. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Monath TP, ed. The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol IV. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 203–231.
-
6
Weaver SC, Anishchenko M, Bowen R, Brault AC, Estrada-Franco JG, Fernandez Z, Greene I, Ortiz D, Paessler S, Powers AM, 2004. Genetic determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis emergence. Arch Virol Suppl (18):43–64.
-
7
Rivas F, Diaz LA, Cardenas VM, Daza E, Bruzon L, Alcala A, De la Hoz O, Caceres FM, Aristizabal G, Martinez JW, Revelo D, De la Hoz F, Boshell J, Camacho T, Calderon L, Olano VA, Villarreal LI, Roselli D, Alvarez G, Ludwig G, Tsai T, 1997. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995. J Infect Dis 175 :828–832.
-
8
Weaver S, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig G, Oberste S, Smith J, Cardenas J, Marino O, Barreto A, Boshell J, Fernandez Z, Godoy O, Rueda E, Guaqueta A, Roberts B, Camacho T, de Calderon L, Tesh RB, 1996. Nueva emergencia de la encefalitis equina venezolana epidemica en Suramerica. Biomedica (Bogota) 16 :78–79.
-
9
Oberste MS, Fraire M, Navarro R, Zepeda C, Zarate ML, Ludwig GV, Kondig JF, Weaver SC, Smith JF, Rico-Hesse R, 1998. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :100–107.
-
10
Watts DM, Callahan J, Rossi C, Oberste MS, Roehrig JT, Wooster MT, Smith JF, Cropp CB, Gentrau EM, Karabatsos N, Gubler D, Hayes CG, 1998. Venezuelan equine encephalitis febrile cases among humans in the Peruvian Amazon River region. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58 :35–40.
-
11
Powers AM, Brault AC, Shirako Y, Strauss EG, Kang W, Strauss JH, Weaver SC, 2001. Evolutionary relationships and systematics of the alphaviruses. J Virol 75 :10118–10131.
-
12
Linssen B, Kinney RM, Aguilar P, Russell KL, Watts DM, Kaaden OR, Pfeffer M, 2000. Development of reverse transcription-PCR assays specific for detection of equine encephalitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 38 :1527–1535.
-
13
Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB, 1996. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. Lancet 348 :436–440.
-
14
Johnston RE, Peters CJ, 1996. Alphaviruses. Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology. Third edition. New York: Lippincott-Raven, 843–898.
-
15
Calisher CH, el-Kafrawi AO, Al-Deen Mahmud MI, Travassos da Rosa AP, Bartz CR, Brummer-Korvenkontio M, Haksohusodo S, Suharyono W, 1986. Complex-specific immunoglobulin M antibody patterns in humans infected with alphaviruses. J Clin Microbiol 23 :155–159.
-
16
CDC. Centers for Disease Control information on arboviral encephalitides. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbdet.htm. Accessed November 7, 2005.
-
17
Deresiewicz RL, Thaler SJ, Hsu L, Zamani AA, 1997. Clinical and neuroradiographic manifestations of eastern equine encephalitis. N Engl J Med 336 :1867–1874.
-
18
Martin DA, Muth DA, Brown T, Johnson AJ, Karabatsos N, Roehrig JT, 2000. Standardization of immunoglobulin M capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for routine diagnosis of arboviral infections. J Clin Microbiol 38 :1823–1826.
-
19
Sahu SP, Alstad AD, Pedersen DD, Pearson JE, 1994. Diagnosis of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus infection in horses by immunoglobulin M and G capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Vet Diagn Invest 6 :34–38.
-
20
Wang E, Paessler S, Aguilar PV, Smith DR, Coffey LL, Kang W, Pfeffer M, Olson J, Blair PJ, Guevara C, Estrada-Franco J, Weaver SC, 2005. A novel, rapid assay for detection and differentiation of serotype-specific antibodies to Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphaviruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 :805–810.
-
21
Paessler S, Fayzulin RZ, Anishchenko M, Greene IP, Weaver SC, Frolov I, 2003. Recombinant sindbis/Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is highly attenuated and immunogenic. J Virol 77 :9278–9286.
-
22
Paessler S, Ni H, Petrakova O, Fayzulin RZ, Yun N, Anishchenko M, Weaver SC, Frolov I, 2006. Replication and clearance of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from the brains of animals vaccinated with chimeric SIN/VEE viruses. J Virol 80 (6):2784–2796.
-
23
Rice CM, Strauss JH, 1981. Nucleotide sequence of the 26S mRNA of Sindbis virus and deduced sequence of the encoded virus structural proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 78 :2062–2066.
-
24
McKnight KL, Simpson DA, Lin SC, Knott TA, Polo JM, Pence DF, Johannsen DB, Heidner HW, Davis NL, Johnston RE, 1996. Deduced consensus sequence of Sindbis virus strain AR339: mutations contained in laboratory strains which affect cell culture and in vivo phenotypes. J Virol 70 :1981–1989.
-
25
Strauss JH, Wang KS, Schmaljohn AL, Kuhn RJ, Strauss EG, 1994. Host-cell receptors for Sindbis virus. Arch Virol Suppl 9 :473–484.
-
26
Strauss JH, Strauss EG, 1994. The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution. Microbiol Rev 58 :491–562.
-
27
Shirako Y, Strauss JH, 1994. Regulation of Sindbis virus RNA replication: uncleaved P123 and nsP4 function in minus-strand RNA synthesis, whereas cleaved products from P123 are required for efficient plus-strand RNA synthesis. J Virol 68 :1874–1885.
-
28
Schlesinger S, Schlesinger MJ, 2001. Togaviridae: The Viruses and Their Replication. Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Fields’ Virology. Fourth edition. New York: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 895–916.
-
29
Roehrig JT, Bolin RA, Hunt AR, Woodward TM, 1991. Use of a new synthetic-peptide-derived monoclonal antibody to differentiate between vaccine and wild-type Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 29 :630–631.
-
30
Taylor RM, Hurlbut HS, Work TH, Kingston JR, Frothingham TE, 1955. Sindbis virus: a newly recognized arthropod-transmitted virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 4 :844–862.
-
31
Davis NL, Brown KW, Greenwald GF, Zajac AJ, Zacny VL, Smith JF, Johnston RE, 1995. Attenuated mutants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus containing lethal mutations in the PE2 cleavage signal combined with a second-site suppressor mutation in E1. Virology 212 :102–110.
-
32
Hart MK, Caswell-Stephan K, Bakken R, Tammariello R, Pratt W, Davis N, Johnston RE, Smith J, Steele K, 2000. Improved mucosal protection against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is induced by the molecularly defined, live-attenuated V3526 vaccine candidate. Vaccine 18 :3067–3075.
-
33
Powers AM, Oberste MS, Brault AC, Rico-Hesse R, Schmura SM, Smith JF, Kang W, Sweeney WP, Weaver SC, 1997. Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus. J Virol 71 :6697–6705.
-
34
Berge TO, Banks IS, Tigertt WD, 1961. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by in vitro cultivation in guinea pig heart cells. Am J Hyg 73 :209–218.
-
35
Kinney RM, Johnson BJ, Welch JB, Tsuchiya KR, Trent DW, 1989. The full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated vaccine derivative, strain TC-83. Virology 170 :19–30.
-
36
Roehrig JT, Bolin RA, 1997. Monoclonal antibodies capable of distinguishing epizootic from enzootic varieties of subtype I Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses in a rapid indirect immunofluorescence assay. J Clin Microbiol 35 :1887–1890.
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37
Wang E, Barrera R, Boshell J, Ferro C, Freier JE, Navarro JC, Salas R, Vasquez C, Weaver SC, 1999. Genetic and phenotypic changes accompanying the emergence of epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses from an enzootic subtype ID progenitor. J Virol 73 :4266–4271.
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38
Oberste MS, Parker MD, Smith JF, 1996. Complete sequence of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE reveals conserved and hypervariable domains within the C terminus of nsP3. Virology 219 :314–320.
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39
Scherer WF, Dickerman RW, Ordonez JV, 1970. Discovery and geographic distribution of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in Guatemala, Honduras, and British Honduras during 1965–68, and its possible movement to Central America and Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 19 :703–711.
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Calisher C, Kinney R, de Souza Lopes O, Trent D, Monath T, Francy D, 1982. Identification of a new Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 31 :1260–1272.
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Kinney RM, Pfeffer M, Tsuchiya KR, Chang GJ, Roehrig JT, 1998. Nucleotide sequences of the 26S mRNAs of the viruses defining the Venezuelan equine encephalitis antigenic complex. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :952–964.
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Bredenbeek PJ, Frolov I, Rice CM, Schlesinger S, 1993. Sindbis virus expression vectors: packaging of RNA replicons by using defective helper RNAs. J Virol 67 :6439–6446.
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Kolokoltsov AA, Wang E, Colpitts T, Weaver SC, Davey RA, 2006. Pseudotyped viruses permit rapid detection of neutralizing antibodies in human and equine serum against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hygiene 75 (4):702–709.
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Wang E, Bowen RA, Medina G, Powers AM, Kang W, Chandler LM, Shope RE, Weaver SC, 2001. Virulence and viremia characteristics of 1992 epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses and closely related enzootic subtype ID strains. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65 :64–69.
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RECOMBINANT ALPHAVIRUSES ARE SAFE AND USEFUL SEROLOGICAL DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
HAOLIN NI
HAOLIN NI
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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NADEZHDA E. YUN
NADEZHDA E. YUN
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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MICHELE A. ZACKS
MICHELE A. ZACKS
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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SCOTT C. WEAVER
SCOTT C. WEAVER
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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ROBERT B. TESH
ROBERT B. TESH
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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AMELIA P. TRAVASSOS DA ROSA
AMELIA P. TRAVASSOS DA ROSA
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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ANN M. POWERS
ANN M. POWERS
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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ILYA FROLOV
ILYA FROLOV
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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SLOBODAN PAESSLER
SLOBODAN PAESSLER
Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Serological assays for diagnosis of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) currently require bio-safety level 3 facilities and select agent certification to produce antigens, reference sera, or viral stocks. Rapid identification of VEEV infection is required to respond to human and equine outbreaks of encephalitis caused by that virus and can be useful for epidemiologic surveillance. Alphavirus (Sindbis)-based recombinant viruses that express VEEV structural proteins are attenuated in animal models, thus representing an alternative to the handling of virulent infectious virus. Virus and viral antigens from recombinant Sindbis/VEE constructs engineered to express structural proteins from multiple VEEV subtypes were evaluated as diagnostic reagents in VEEV-specific serological assays, e.g., plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay, and complement fixation (CF) test. Chimeric viruses were produced efficiently in cell culture and were as effective as the parental virus for identifying infection of humans, horses, and rodents in these serological assays.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Young NA, Johnson KM, 1969. Antigenic variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: their geographic distribution and epidemiologic significance. Am J Epidemiol 89 :286–307.
-
2
Young NA, Johnson KM, Gauld LW, 1969. Viruses of the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis complex. Experimental infection of Panamanian rodents. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18 :290–296.
-
3
Young NA, 1972. Serologic differentiation of viruses of the Venezuelan encephalitis (VE) complex. Proc. Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, 84–89.
-
4
Rico-Hesse R, Weaver SC, de Siger J, Medina G, Salas RA, 1995. Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 :5278–5281.
-
5
Walton TE, Grayson MA, 1988. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Monath TP, ed. The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol IV. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 203–231.
-
6
Weaver SC, Anishchenko M, Bowen R, Brault AC, Estrada-Franco JG, Fernandez Z, Greene I, Ortiz D, Paessler S, Powers AM, 2004. Genetic determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis emergence. Arch Virol Suppl (18):43–64.
-
7
Rivas F, Diaz LA, Cardenas VM, Daza E, Bruzon L, Alcala A, De la Hoz O, Caceres FM, Aristizabal G, Martinez JW, Revelo D, De la Hoz F, Boshell J, Camacho T, Calderon L, Olano VA, Villarreal LI, Roselli D, Alvarez G, Ludwig G, Tsai T, 1997. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995. J Infect Dis 175 :828–832.
-
8
Weaver S, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig G, Oberste S, Smith J, Cardenas J, Marino O, Barreto A, Boshell J, Fernandez Z, Godoy O, Rueda E, Guaqueta A, Roberts B, Camacho T, de Calderon L, Tesh RB, 1996. Nueva emergencia de la encefalitis equina venezolana epidemica en Suramerica. Biomedica (Bogota) 16 :78–79.
-
9
Oberste MS, Fraire M, Navarro R, Zepeda C, Zarate ML, Ludwig GV, Kondig JF, Weaver SC, Smith JF, Rico-Hesse R, 1998. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :100–107.
-
10
Watts DM, Callahan J, Rossi C, Oberste MS, Roehrig JT, Wooster MT, Smith JF, Cropp CB, Gentrau EM, Karabatsos N, Gubler D, Hayes CG, 1998. Venezuelan equine encephalitis febrile cases among humans in the Peruvian Amazon River region. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58 :35–40.
-
11
Powers AM, Brault AC, Shirako Y, Strauss EG, Kang W, Strauss JH, Weaver SC, 2001. Evolutionary relationships and systematics of the alphaviruses. J Virol 75 :10118–10131.
-
12
Linssen B, Kinney RM, Aguilar P, Russell KL, Watts DM, Kaaden OR, Pfeffer M, 2000. Development of reverse transcription-PCR assays specific for detection of equine encephalitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 38 :1527–1535.
-
13
Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB, 1996. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. Lancet 348 :436–440.
-
14
Johnston RE, Peters CJ, 1996. Alphaviruses. Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Virology. Third edition. New York: Lippincott-Raven, 843–898.
-
15
Calisher CH, el-Kafrawi AO, Al-Deen Mahmud MI, Travassos da Rosa AP, Bartz CR, Brummer-Korvenkontio M, Haksohusodo S, Suharyono W, 1986. Complex-specific immunoglobulin M antibody patterns in humans infected with alphaviruses. J Clin Microbiol 23 :155–159.
-
16
CDC. Centers for Disease Control information on arboviral encephalitides. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/arbdet.htm. Accessed November 7, 2005.
-
17
Deresiewicz RL, Thaler SJ, Hsu L, Zamani AA, 1997. Clinical and neuroradiographic manifestations of eastern equine encephalitis. N Engl J Med 336 :1867–1874.
-
18
Martin DA, Muth DA, Brown T, Johnson AJ, Karabatsos N, Roehrig JT, 2000. Standardization of immunoglobulin M capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for routine diagnosis of arboviral infections. J Clin Microbiol 38 :1823–1826.
-
19
Sahu SP, Alstad AD, Pedersen DD, Pearson JE, 1994. Diagnosis of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus infection in horses by immunoglobulin M and G capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Vet Diagn Invest 6 :34–38.
-
20
Wang E, Paessler S, Aguilar PV, Smith DR, Coffey LL, Kang W, Pfeffer M, Olson J, Blair PJ, Guevara C, Estrada-Franco J, Weaver SC, 2005. A novel, rapid assay for detection and differentiation of serotype-specific antibodies to Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphaviruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 :805–810.
-
21
Paessler S, Fayzulin RZ, Anishchenko M, Greene IP, Weaver SC, Frolov I, 2003. Recombinant sindbis/Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is highly attenuated and immunogenic. J Virol 77 :9278–9286.
-
22
Paessler S, Ni H, Petrakova O, Fayzulin RZ, Yun N, Anishchenko M, Weaver SC, Frolov I, 2006. Replication and clearance of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from the brains of animals vaccinated with chimeric SIN/VEE viruses. J Virol 80 (6):2784–2796.
-
23
Rice CM, Strauss JH, 1981. Nucleotide sequence of the 26S mRNA of Sindbis virus and deduced sequence of the encoded virus structural proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 78 :2062–2066.
-
24
McKnight KL, Simpson DA, Lin SC, Knott TA, Polo JM, Pence DF, Johannsen DB, Heidner HW, Davis NL, Johnston RE, 1996. Deduced consensus sequence of Sindbis virus strain AR339: mutations contained in laboratory strains which affect cell culture and in vivo phenotypes. J Virol 70 :1981–1989.
-
25
Strauss JH, Wang KS, Schmaljohn AL, Kuhn RJ, Strauss EG, 1994. Host-cell receptors for Sindbis virus. Arch Virol Suppl 9 :473–484.
-
26
Strauss JH, Strauss EG, 1994. The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution. Microbiol Rev 58 :491–562.
-
27
Shirako Y, Strauss JH, 1994. Regulation of Sindbis virus RNA replication: uncleaved P123 and nsP4 function in minus-strand RNA synthesis, whereas cleaved products from P123 are required for efficient plus-strand RNA synthesis. J Virol 68 :1874–1885.
-
28
Schlesinger S, Schlesinger MJ, 2001. Togaviridae: The Viruses and Their Replication. Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Fields’ Virology. Fourth edition. New York: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 895–916.
-
29
Roehrig JT, Bolin RA, Hunt AR, Woodward TM, 1991. Use of a new synthetic-peptide-derived monoclonal antibody to differentiate between vaccine and wild-type Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 29 :630–631.
-
30
Taylor RM, Hurlbut HS, Work TH, Kingston JR, Frothingham TE, 1955. Sindbis virus: a newly recognized arthropod-transmitted virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 4 :844–862.
-
31
Davis NL, Brown KW, Greenwald GF, Zajac AJ, Zacny VL, Smith JF, Johnston RE, 1995. Attenuated mutants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus containing lethal mutations in the PE2 cleavage signal combined with a second-site suppressor mutation in E1. Virology 212 :102–110.
-
32
Hart MK, Caswell-Stephan K, Bakken R, Tammariello R, Pratt W, Davis N, Johnston RE, Smith J, Steele K, 2000. Improved mucosal protection against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is induced by the molecularly defined, live-attenuated V3526 vaccine candidate. Vaccine 18 :3067–3075.
-
33
Powers AM, Oberste MS, Brault AC, Rico-Hesse R, Schmura SM, Smith JF, Kang W, Sweeney WP, Weaver SC, 1997. Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus. J Virol 71 :6697–6705.
-
34
Berge TO, Banks IS, Tigertt WD, 1961. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by in vitro cultivation in guinea pig heart cells. Am J Hyg 73 :209–218.
-
35
Kinney RM, Johnson BJ, Welch JB, Tsuchiya KR, Trent DW, 1989. The full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated vaccine derivative, strain TC-83. Virology 170 :19–30.
-
36
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