ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K, 1999. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa’s non-pregnant population. Bull World Health Organ 77 :624–640.
-
2
Sachs J, Malaney P, 2002. The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature 415 :680–685.
-
3
Breman JG, Egan A, Keutsch GT, 2001. The intolerable burden of malaria: a new look at the numbers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 (Suppl 1):iv–vii.
-
4
Craig MH, Snow RW, le Sueur D, 1999. A climate-based distribution model of malaria transmssion in sub-Saharan Africa. Parasitol Today 15 :105–111.
-
5
Beier JC, Killeen GF, Githure J, 1999. Short report: Entomologic inoculation rates and Plasmodium falciparum malaria prevalence in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61 :109–113.
-
6
Korenromp EL, Williams BG, Gouws E, Dye C, Snow RW, 2003. Measurement of trends in childhood malaria mortality in Africa: an assessment of progress towards targets based on verbal autopsy. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :349–358.
-
7
Hay SI, Rogers DJ, Toomer JF, Snow RW, 2000. Annual Plasmodium falciparum entomological inoculation rates across Africa: literature survey, internet access and review. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 :113–127.
-
8
Utzinger J, Tozan Y, Doumani F, Singer BH, 2002. The economic payoffs of integrated malaria control in the Zambian copper-belt between 1930 and 1950. Trop Med Int Health 7 :657–677.
-
9
Spielman A, Weerasuriya S, Malaney P, Kiszewski AE, Willis D, Pollack RJ, Teklehaimot A, 2002. Industrial Anti-Malaria Policies. Boston: Harvard School of Public Health, 31.
-
10
Martin C, Curtis B, Fraser C, Sharp B, 2002. The use of a GIS-based malaria information system for malaria research and control in South Africa. Health Place 8 :227–236.
-
12
Kitron U, Spielman A, 1989. Suppression of transmission of malaria through source reduction: antianopheline measures applied in Israel, the United States, and Italy. Rev Infect Dis 11 :391–406.
-
13
Service MW, 1997. Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) dispersal-the long and short of it. J Med Entomol 34 :579–588.
-
14
Service MW, 1991. Agricultural development and arthropod-borne diseases: a review. Rev Saude Publica 25 :165–178.
-
15
Shiff C, 2002. Integrated approach to malaria control. Clin Microbiol Rev 15 :278–298.
-
16
Ault SK, 1994. Environmental management: a re-emerging vector control strategy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 50 :35–49.
-
17
Rozendaal JA, 1997. Vector Control. Methods for Use by Individuals and Communities. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
18
Pampana E, 1963. A Textbook of Malaria Eradication. London: Oxford University Press.
-
19
Lindsay SW, Jawara M, Paine K, Pinder M, Walraven GEL, Emerson PM, 2003. Changes in house design reduce exposure to malaria mosquitoes. Trop Med Int Health 8 :512–517.
-
20
Lindsay SW, Emerson PM, Charlwood JD, 2002. Reducing malaria transmission by mosquito-proofing homes. Trends Parasitol 18 :510–514.
-
21
Utzinger J, Tozan Y, Singer BH, 2001. Efficacy and cost effectiveness of environmental management for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health 6 :677–687.
-
22
Killeen GF, Fillinger U, Kiche I, Gouagna LC, Knols BGJ, 2002. Eradication of Anopheles gambiae from Brazil: lessons for malaria control in Africa? Lancet Infect Dis 2 :618–627.
-
23
Utzinger J, Tanner M, Kammen DM, Killeen GF, Singer BH, 2002. Integrated programme is key to malaria control. Nature 419 :431.
-
24
Watson M, 1953. African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa. London: John Murray.
-
25
Kilama WL, 1994. Malaria in Tanzania: past and present. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Joint Scientific Conference with a Seminar on Malaria Control Research. Arusha, Tanzania: National Institute for Medical Research.
-
26
Kilama WL, 1991. Control of arthropods of public health importance. Mwaluko GMP, Kilama WL, Mandara PM, Murru M, MacPherson CNL, eds. Health and Disease in Tanzania. London: Harper Collins Academic, 199–218.
-
27
Bang YH, Mrope FM, Sabuni IB, 1977. Changes in mosquito populations associated with urbanization in Tanzania. East Afr Med J 54 :403–411.
-
28
Bang YH, Sabuni IB, Tonn RJ, 1975. Integrated control of urban mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam using community sanitation supplemented by larviciding. East Afr Med J 52 :578–588.
-
29
Yamagata Y, 1996. Review of Tanzania-Japan Urban Malaria Control Project (UMCP) in Dar es Salaam and Tanga (1988–1996). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Japan International Cooperation Agency, 46.
-
30
Castro MC, Yamagata Y, Mtasiwa D, Tanner M, Utzinger J, Keiser J, Singer BH, 2004. Integrated urban malaria control: a case study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):103–117.
-
31
Robert V, MacIntyre K, Keating J, Trape JF, Duchemin JB, Warren M, Beier JC, 2003. Malaria transmission in urban sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :169–176.
-
32
Keiser J, Utzinger J, Castro MC, Smith TA, Tanner M, Singer BH, 2004. Urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa and implication for malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):118–127.
-
33
Cohen JE, Gurtler RE, 2001. Modeling household transmission of American trypanosomiasis. Science 293 :694–698.
-
34
Seyoum A, Killeen GF, Kabiru EW, Knols BGJ, Hassanali A, 2003. Field efficacy of thermally expelled or live potted repellent plants against African malaria vectors in western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 8 :1005–1011.
-
35
Seyoum A, Hassanali A, Kabiru EW, Palsson K, Killeen GF, Luande W, Knols BGJ, 2002. Traditional use of mosquito repellent plants in Western Kenya and their evaluation in semi-field experimental huts against Anopheles gambiae: Ethnobotanical studies and application by thermal expulsion and direct burning. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 :225–231.
-
36
Seyoum A, Hassanali A, Kabiru EW, Killeen GF, Luande W, Knols BGJ, 2002. Repellency of live potted plants against Anopheles gambiae from human baits in semi-field experimental huts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :191–195.
-
37
Seyoum A, Balcha F, Balkew M, Ali A, Gebre-Michael T, 2002. Impact of cattle keeping on human biting rate of anopheline mosquitoes and malaria transmission around Ziway, Ethiopia. East Afr Med J 79 :485–489.
-
38
Khan ZR, Ampong-Nyarko K, Chiliswa P, Hassanali A, Kimani S, Lwande W, Overholt WA, Pickett JA, Smart LE, Wadhams LJ, Woodcock CM, 1997. Intercropping increases parasitism of pests. Nature 388 :631–632.
-
39
Sota T, Mogi M, 1989. Effectiveness of zooprophylaxis in malaria control: a theoretical inquiry with a model for mosquito populations with two bloodmeal hosts. Med Vet Entomol 3 :337–345.
-
40
Killeen GF, McKenzie FE, Foy BD, Bogh C, Beier JC, 2001. The availability of potential hosts as a determinant of feeding behaviours and malaria transmission by mosquito populations. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :469–476.
-
41
Saul A, 2003. Zooprophylaxis or zoopotentiation: the outcome of introducing animals on vector transmission is highly dependent on the mosquito mortality while searching. Malaria J 2 :32.
-
42
Killeen GF, Knols BGJ, Gu W, 2003. Taking malaria transmission out of the bottle: implications of mosquito dispersal for vector control interventions. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :297–303.
-
43
McKenzie FE, Baird JK, Beier JC, Lal AA, Bossert WH, 2002. A biological basis for integrated malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :571–577.
-
44
Donnelly MJ, Simard F, Lehmann T, 2002. Evolutionary studies of malaria vectors. Trends Parasitol 18 :75–80.
-
45
Scott TW, Takken W, Knols BGJ, Boete C, 2002. Ecology of genetically modified mosquitoes. Science 298 :117–119.
-
46
Bell WJ, 1990. Searching behavior patterns in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 35 :447–467.
-
47
Browne LG, 1993. Physiologically induced changes in resource-oriented behaviour. Annu Rev Entomol 38 :1–25.
-
48
Hess AD, Hayes RO, Tempelis CH, 1968. The use of the forage ratio technique in mosquito host preference studies. Mosq News 28 :386–389.
-
49
Kay BH, Boreham PFL, Edman JD, 1979. Application of the “Feeding Index” concept to studies of mosquito host-feeding patterns. Mosq News 39 :68–73.
-
50
Killeen GF, McKenzie FE, Foy BD, Schieffelin C, Billingsley PF, Beier JC, 2000. A simplified model for predicting malaria entomologic inoculation rates based on entomologic and parasitologic parameters relevant to control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 :535–544.
-
51
Saul AJ, Graves PM, Kay BH, 1990. A cyclical feeding model for pathogen transmission and its application to determine vectorial capacity from vector infection rates. J Appl Ecol 27 :123–133.
-
52
Smith T, Charlwood JD, Kihonda J, Mwankusye S, Billingsley P, Meuwissen J, Lyimo E, Takken W, Teuscher T, Tanner M, 1993. Absence of seasonal variation in malaria parasitemia in an area of intense seasonal transmission. Acta Trop 54 :55–72.
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53
Charlwood JD, Smith T, Kihonda J, Heiz B, Billingsley PF, Takken W, 1995. Density independent feeding success of malaria vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) in Tanzania. Bull Entomol Res 85 :29–35.
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54
Charlwood JD, Smith T, Billingsley PF, Takken W, Lyimo EOL, Meuwissen JHET, 1997. Survival and infection probabilities of anthropophagic anophelines from an area of high prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in humans. Bull Entomol Res 87 :445–453.
-
55
Killeen GF, McKenzie FE, Foy BD, Schieffelin C, Billingsley PF, Beier JC, 2000. The potential impacts of integrated malaria transmission control on entomologic inoculation rate in highly endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 :545–551.
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56
Soper FL, Wilson DB, 1943. Anopheles gambiae in Brazil: 1930 to 1940. New York: The Rockefeller Foundation.
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58
Clarke SE, Bogh C, Brown RC, Pinder M, Walraven GEL, Lindsay SW, 2001. Untreated nets protect against malaria infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :457–463.
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Guyatt HL, Snow RW, 2002. The cost of not treating bednets. Trends Parasitol 18 :12–16.
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Hii JLK, Smith T, Vounatsou P, Alexander N, Mai A, Ibam E, Alpers MP, 2001. Area effects of bednet use in a malaria-endemic area in Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :7–13.
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Hadis M, Lulu M, Makonnen Y, Asfaw T, 1997. Host choice by indoor-resting Anopheles arabiensis in Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :376–378.
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RATIONALIZING HISTORICAL SUCCESSES OF MALARIA CONTROL IN AFRICA IN TERMS OF MOSQUITO RESOURCE AVAILABILTY MANAGEMENT
GERRY F. KILLEEN
GERRY F. KILLEEN
Ifakara Health Research and Development Centre, Ifakara, Kilombero District, Tanzania; Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical Institute, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Entomology Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization/International Atomic Energy Agency, Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, Seibersdorf, Austria
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AKLILU SEYOUM
AKLILU SEYOUM
Ifakara Health Research and Development Centre, Ifakara, Kilombero District, Tanzania; Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical Institute, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Entomology Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization/International Atomic Energy Agency, Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, Seibersdorf, Austria
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BART G. J. KNOLS
BART G. J. KNOLS
Ifakara Health Research and Development Centre, Ifakara, Kilombero District, Tanzania; Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical Institute, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Entomology Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization/International Atomic Energy Agency, Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, Seibersdorf, Austria
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Environmental management of mosquito resources is a promising approach with which to control malaria, but it has seen little application in Africa for more than half a century. Here we present a kinetic model of mosquito foraging for aquatic habitats and vertebrate hosts that allows estimation of malaria transmission intensity by defining the availability of these resources as the rate at which individual mosquitoes encounter and use them. The model captures historically observed responses of malaria transmission to environmental change, highlights important gaps in current understanding of vector ecology, and suggests convenient solutions. Resource availability is an intuitive concept that provides an adaptable framework for models of mosquito population dynamics, gene flow, and pathogen transmission that can be conveniently parameterized with direct field measurements. Furthermore, the model presented predicts that drastic reductions of malaria transmission are possible with environmental management and elucidates an ecologic basis for previous successes of integrated malaria control in Africa before the advent of DDT or chloroquine. Environmental management for malaria control requires specialist skills that are currently lacking in sub-Saharan Africa where they are needed most. Infrastructure and human capacity building in clinical, public health, and environmental disciplines should therefore be prioritized so that growing financial support for tackling malaria can be translated into truly integrated control programs.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Snow RW, Craig M, Deichmann U, Marsh K, 1999. Estimating mortality, morbidity and disability due to malaria among Africa’s non-pregnant population. Bull World Health Organ 77 :624–640.
-
2
Sachs J, Malaney P, 2002. The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature 415 :680–685.
-
3
Breman JG, Egan A, Keutsch GT, 2001. The intolerable burden of malaria: a new look at the numbers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 (Suppl 1):iv–vii.
-
4
Craig MH, Snow RW, le Sueur D, 1999. A climate-based distribution model of malaria transmssion in sub-Saharan Africa. Parasitol Today 15 :105–111.
-
5
Beier JC, Killeen GF, Githure J, 1999. Short report: Entomologic inoculation rates and Plasmodium falciparum malaria prevalence in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61 :109–113.
-
6
Korenromp EL, Williams BG, Gouws E, Dye C, Snow RW, 2003. Measurement of trends in childhood malaria mortality in Africa: an assessment of progress towards targets based on verbal autopsy. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :349–358.
-
7
Hay SI, Rogers DJ, Toomer JF, Snow RW, 2000. Annual Plasmodium falciparum entomological inoculation rates across Africa: literature survey, internet access and review. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 :113–127.
-
8
Utzinger J, Tozan Y, Doumani F, Singer BH, 2002. The economic payoffs of integrated malaria control in the Zambian copper-belt between 1930 and 1950. Trop Med Int Health 7 :657–677.
-
9
Spielman A, Weerasuriya S, Malaney P, Kiszewski AE, Willis D, Pollack RJ, Teklehaimot A, 2002. Industrial Anti-Malaria Policies. Boston: Harvard School of Public Health, 31.
-
10
Martin C, Curtis B, Fraser C, Sharp B, 2002. The use of a GIS-based malaria information system for malaria research and control in South Africa. Health Place 8 :227–236.
-
12
Kitron U, Spielman A, 1989. Suppression of transmission of malaria through source reduction: antianopheline measures applied in Israel, the United States, and Italy. Rev Infect Dis 11 :391–406.
-
13
Service MW, 1997. Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) dispersal-the long and short of it. J Med Entomol 34 :579–588.
-
14
Service MW, 1991. Agricultural development and arthropod-borne diseases: a review. Rev Saude Publica 25 :165–178.
-
15
Shiff C, 2002. Integrated approach to malaria control. Clin Microbiol Rev 15 :278–298.
-
16
Ault SK, 1994. Environmental management: a re-emerging vector control strategy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 50 :35–49.
-
17
Rozendaal JA, 1997. Vector Control. Methods for Use by Individuals and Communities. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
18
Pampana E, 1963. A Textbook of Malaria Eradication. London: Oxford University Press.
-
19
Lindsay SW, Jawara M, Paine K, Pinder M, Walraven GEL, Emerson PM, 2003. Changes in house design reduce exposure to malaria mosquitoes. Trop Med Int Health 8 :512–517.
-
20
Lindsay SW, Emerson PM, Charlwood JD, 2002. Reducing malaria transmission by mosquito-proofing homes. Trends Parasitol 18 :510–514.
-
21
Utzinger J, Tozan Y, Singer BH, 2001. Efficacy and cost effectiveness of environmental management for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health 6 :677–687.
-
22
Killeen GF, Fillinger U, Kiche I, Gouagna LC, Knols BGJ, 2002. Eradication of Anopheles gambiae from Brazil: lessons for malaria control in Africa? Lancet Infect Dis 2 :618–627.
-
23
Utzinger J, Tanner M, Kammen DM, Killeen GF, Singer BH, 2002. Integrated programme is key to malaria control. Nature 419 :431.
-
24
Watson M, 1953. African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa. London: John Murray.
-
25
Kilama WL, 1994. Malaria in Tanzania: past and present. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Joint Scientific Conference with a Seminar on Malaria Control Research. Arusha, Tanzania: National Institute for Medical Research.
-
26
Kilama WL, 1991. Control of arthropods of public health importance. Mwaluko GMP, Kilama WL, Mandara PM, Murru M, MacPherson CNL, eds. Health and Disease in Tanzania. London: Harper Collins Academic, 199–218.
-
27
Bang YH, Mrope FM, Sabuni IB, 1977. Changes in mosquito populations associated with urbanization in Tanzania. East Afr Med J 54 :403–411.
-
28
Bang YH, Sabuni IB, Tonn RJ, 1975. Integrated control of urban mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam using community sanitation supplemented by larviciding. East Afr Med J 52 :578–588.
-
29
Yamagata Y, 1996. Review of Tanzania-Japan Urban Malaria Control Project (UMCP) in Dar es Salaam and Tanga (1988–1996). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Japan International Cooperation Agency, 46.
-
30
Castro MC, Yamagata Y, Mtasiwa D, Tanner M, Utzinger J, Keiser J, Singer BH, 2004. Integrated urban malaria control: a case study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):103–117.
-
31
Robert V, MacIntyre K, Keating J, Trape JF, Duchemin JB, Warren M, Beier JC, 2003. Malaria transmission in urban sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :169–176.
-
32
Keiser J, Utzinger J, Castro MC, Smith TA, Tanner M, Singer BH, 2004. Urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa and implication for malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):118–127.
-
33
Cohen JE, Gurtler RE, 2001. Modeling household transmission of American trypanosomiasis. Science 293 :694–698.
-
34
Seyoum A, Killeen GF, Kabiru EW, Knols BGJ, Hassanali A, 2003. Field efficacy of thermally expelled or live potted repellent plants against African malaria vectors in western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 8 :1005–1011.
-
35
Seyoum A, Hassanali A, Kabiru EW, Palsson K, Killeen GF, Luande W, Knols BGJ, 2002. Traditional use of mosquito repellent plants in Western Kenya and their evaluation in semi-field experimental huts against Anopheles gambiae: Ethnobotanical studies and application by thermal expulsion and direct burning. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 :225–231.
-
36
Seyoum A, Hassanali A, Kabiru EW, Killeen GF, Luande W, Knols BGJ, 2002. Repellency of live potted plants against Anopheles gambiae from human baits in semi-field experimental huts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :191–195.
-
37
Seyoum A, Balcha F, Balkew M, Ali A, Gebre-Michael T, 2002. Impact of cattle keeping on human biting rate of anopheline mosquitoes and malaria transmission around Ziway, Ethiopia. East Afr Med J 79 :485–489.
-
38
Khan ZR, Ampong-Nyarko K, Chiliswa P, Hassanali A, Kimani S, Lwande W, Overholt WA, Pickett JA, Smart LE, Wadhams LJ, Woodcock CM, 1997. Intercropping increases parasitism of pests. Nature 388 :631–632.
-
39
Sota T, Mogi M, 1989. Effectiveness of zooprophylaxis in malaria control: a theoretical inquiry with a model for mosquito populations with two bloodmeal hosts. Med Vet Entomol 3 :337–345.
-
40
Killeen GF, McKenzie FE, Foy BD, Bogh C, Beier JC, 2001. The availability of potential hosts as a determinant of feeding behaviours and malaria transmission by mosquito populations. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :469–476.
-
41
Saul A, 2003. Zooprophylaxis or zoopotentiation: the outcome of introducing animals on vector transmission is highly dependent on the mosquito mortality while searching. Malaria J 2 :32.
-
42
Killeen GF, Knols BGJ, Gu W, 2003. Taking malaria transmission out of the bottle: implications of mosquito dispersal for vector control interventions. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :297–303.
-
43
McKenzie FE, Baird JK, Beier JC, Lal AA, Bossert WH, 2002. A biological basis for integrated malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :571–577.
-
44
Donnelly MJ, Simard F, Lehmann T, 2002. Evolutionary studies of malaria vectors. Trends Parasitol 18 :75–80.
-
45
Scott TW, Takken W, Knols BGJ, Boete C, 2002. Ecology of genetically modified mosquitoes. Science 298 :117–119.
-
46
Bell WJ, 1990. Searching behavior patterns in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 35 :447–467.
-
47
Browne LG, 1993. Physiologically induced changes in resource-oriented behaviour. Annu Rev Entomol 38 :1–25.
-
48
Hess AD, Hayes RO, Tempelis CH, 1968. The use of the forage ratio technique in mosquito host preference studies. Mosq News 28 :386–389.
-
49
Kay BH, Boreham PFL, Edman JD, 1979. Application of the “Feeding Index” concept to studies of mosquito host-feeding patterns. Mosq News 39 :68–73.
-
50
Killeen GF, McKenzie FE, Foy BD, Schieffelin C, Billingsley PF, Beier JC, 2000. A simplified model for predicting malaria entomologic inoculation rates based on entomologic and parasitologic parameters relevant to control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 :535–544.
-
51
Saul AJ, Graves PM, Kay BH, 1990. A cyclical feeding model for pathogen transmission and its application to determine vectorial capacity from vector infection rates. J Appl Ecol 27 :123–133.
-
52
Smith T, Charlwood JD, Kihonda J, Mwankusye S, Billingsley P, Meuwissen J, Lyimo E, Takken W, Teuscher T, Tanner M, 1993. Absence of seasonal variation in malaria parasitemia in an area of intense seasonal transmission. Acta Trop 54 :55–72.
-
53
Charlwood JD, Smith T, Kihonda J, Heiz B, Billingsley PF, Takken W, 1995. Density independent feeding success of malaria vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) in Tanzania. Bull Entomol Res 85 :29–35.
-
54
Charlwood JD, Smith T, Billingsley PF, Takken W, Lyimo EOL, Meuwissen JHET, 1997. Survival and infection probabilities of anthropophagic anophelines from an area of high prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in humans. Bull Entomol Res 87 :445–453.
-
55
Killeen GF, McKenzie FE, Foy BD, Schieffelin C, Billingsley PF, Beier JC, 2000. The potential impacts of integrated malaria transmission control on entomologic inoculation rate in highly endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 :545–551.
-
56
Soper FL, Wilson DB, 1943. Anopheles gambiae in Brazil: 1930 to 1940. New York: The Rockefeller Foundation.
-
57
Shousha AT, 1948. Species-eradication: The eradication of Anopheles gambiae from Upper Egypt, 1942–1945. Bull World Health Organ 1 :309–353.
-
58
Clarke SE, Bogh C, Brown RC, Pinder M, Walraven GEL, Lindsay SW, 2001. Untreated nets protect against malaria infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :457–463.
-
59
Guyatt HL, Snow RW, 2002. The cost of not treating bednets. Trends Parasitol 18 :12–16.
-
60
Hii JLK, Smith T, Vounatsou P, Alexander N, Mai A, Ibam E, Alpers MP, 2001. Area effects of bednet use in a malaria-endemic area in Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :7–13.
-
61
Hadis M, Lulu M, Makonnen Y, Asfaw T, 1997. Host choice by indoor-resting Anopheles arabiensis in Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :376–378.
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