ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Biran A, Rabie T, Schmidt W, Juvekar S, Hirve S, Curtis V, 2008. Comparing the performance of indicators of hand-washing practices in rural Indian households. Trop Med Int Health 13: 278–285.
-
2.
Manun'Ebo M, Cousens S, Haggerty P, Kalengaie M, Ashworth A, Kirkwood B, 1997. Measuring hygiene practices: a comparison of questionnaires with direct observations in rural Zaire. Trop Med Int Health 2: 1015–1021.
-
3.
Stanton BF, Clemens JD, Aziz KM, Rahman M, 1987. Twenty-four-hour recall, knowledge-attitude-practice questionnaires, and direct observations of sanitary practices: a comparative study. Bull World Health Organ 65: 217–222.
-
4.
Luby SP, Halder AK, 2008. Associations among handwashing indicators, wealth, and symptoms of childhood respiratory illness in urban Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 13: 835-8-44.
-
5.
Halder AK, Tronchet C, Akhter S, Bhuiya A, Johnston R, Luby SP, Observed hand cleanliness and other measures of handwashing behavior in rural Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 10: 545.
-
6.
Hoque BA, Mahalanabis D, Alam MJ, Islam MS, 1995. Post-defecation handwashing in Bangladesh: practice and efficiency perspectives. Public Health 109: 15–24.
-
7.
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Raza A, Sobel J, Mint ED, Baier K, Hoekstra RM, Rahbar MH, Hassan R, Qureshi SM, Gangarosa EJ, 2001. Microbiologic effectiveness of hand washing with soap in an urban squatter settlement, Karachi, Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect 127: 237–244.
-
8.
Pinfold JV, 1990. Faecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faeco-oral disease transmission. I. A case study in rural north-east Thailand. Epidemiol Infect 105: 363–375.
-
9.
Pinfold JV, Horan NJ, 1996. Measuring the effect of a hygiene behaviour intervention by indicators of behaviour and diarrhoeal disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90: 366–371.
-
10.
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Billhimer W, Hoekstra RM, 2007. Field trial of a low cost method to evaluate hand cleanliness. Trop Med Int Health 12: 765–771.
-
11.
Pickering AJ, Davis J, Walters SP, Horak HM, Keymer DP, Mushi D, Strickfaden R, Chynoweth JS, Liu J, Blum A, Rogers K, Boehm AB. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
12.
Larson E, Aiello A, Lee LV, Della-Latta P, Gomez-Duarte C, Lin S, 2003. Short- and long-term effects of handwashing with antimicrobial or plain soap in the community. J Community Health 28: 139–150.
-
13.
Islam MS, Alam MJ, Khan SI, Huq A, 1994. Faecal pollution of fresh water environments in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Studies 46: 161–165.
-
14.
Sobel J, Mahon B, Mendoza CE, Passaro D, Cano F, Baier K, Racioppi F, Hutwagner L, Mintz E, 1998. Reduction of fecal contamination of street-vended beverages in Guatemala by a simple system for water purification and storage, handwashing, and beverage storage. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59: 380–387.
-
15.
Kaltenthaler E, Waterman R, Cross P, 1991. Faecal indicator bacteria on the hands and the effectiveness of hand-washing in Zimbabwe. J Trop Med Hyg 94: 358–363.
-
16.
Kaltenthaler EC, Pinfold JV, 1995. Microbiological methods for assessing handwashing practice in hygiene behaviour studies. J Trop Med Hyg 98: 101–106.
-
17.
Fuls JL, Rodgers ND, Fischler GE, Howard JM, Patel M, Weidner PL, Duran MH, 2008. Alternative hand contamination technique to compare the activities of antimicrobial and nonantimicrobial soaps under different test conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 74: 3739–3744.
-
18.
Moe CL, Sobsey MD, Samsa GP, Mesolo V, 1991. Bacterial indicators of risk of diarrhoeal disease from drinking-water in the Philippines. Bull World Health Organ 69: 305–317.
-
19.
Stauber CE, Ortiz GM, Loomis DP, Sobsey MD, 2009. A randomized controlled trial of the concrete biosand filter and its impact on diarrheal disease in Bonao, Dominican Republic. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 286–293.
-
20.
Brown JM, Proum S, Sobsey MD, 2008. Escherichia coli in household drinking water and diarrheal disease risk: evidence from Cambodia. Water Sci Technol 58: 757–763.
-
21.
Pickering AJ, Boehm AB, Mwanjali M, Davis J, 2010. Efficacy of waterless hand hygiene compared with handwashing with soap: a field study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 270–278.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 478 | 441 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 372 | 21 | 6 |
| PDF Downloads | 120 | 17 | 6 |
Variability in Hand Contamination Based on Serial Measurements: Implications for Assessment of Hand-Cleansing Behavior and Disease Risk
Pavani K. Ram
Pavani K. Ram
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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Iqbal Jahid
Iqbal Jahid
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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Amal K. Halder
Amal K. Halder
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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Benjamin Nygren
Benjamin Nygren
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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M. Sirajul Islam
M. Sirajul Islam
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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Stewart P. Granger
Stewart P. Granger
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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John W. Molyneaux
John W. Molyneaux
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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Stephen P. Luby
Stephen P. Luby
University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh; Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Unilever Research and Development, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom; 4-Front Research, Capenhurst, Cheshire, United Kingdom; Millennium Challenge Corporation, Washington, DC
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Measuring hand contamination at critical times, such as eating, can be challenging. We examined whether hand contamination measured at random, such as on arrival (initial), predicts contamination at critical times. Mothers of young children in Bangladesh rinsed both hands in 200 mL of ringer's solution. We compared results of serial samples with respect to fecal coliform counts. Among 39 mothers, the geometric mean of fecal coliforms was 307 colony-forming units (cfu)/100 mL at initial collection and 3,001 cfu/100 mL during critical times (P = 0.0006). There was no correlation between initial and critical time fecal coliform counts (R = 0.13, P = 0.43). The mean difference between initial and critical time counts was 3.5 (standard deviation = 1.4) on the log base-10 scale. Contamination of the same subjects' hands varied substantially within a few hours. Because hand contamination measured at random cannot reliably predict hand contamination at times of potential pathogen transmission, single random hand rinses are not valid proxy measures for handwashing behavior.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Pavani K. Ram, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, E-mail: pkram@buffalo.edu. Iqbal Jahid, Amal K. Halder, M. Sirajul Islam, and Stephen P. Luby, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Shaheed Tajuddin Ahmed Sharani, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh, E-mails: sislam@icddrb.org, Amal_Halder@wvi.org, sislam@icddrb.org, and sluby@icddrb.org. Benjamin Nygren, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: ghz8@cdc.gov. Stewart P. Granger, Unilever Research and Development Port Sunlight, Bebington, Wirral, United Kingdom, E-mail: stewart.granger@southcentral.nhs.uk. John W. Molyneaux, Water and Sanitation Program, The World Bank Group, Washington, DC, E-mail: jack_molyneaux@usa.net.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Biran A, Rabie T, Schmidt W, Juvekar S, Hirve S, Curtis V, 2008. Comparing the performance of indicators of hand-washing practices in rural Indian households. Trop Med Int Health 13: 278–285.
-
2.
Manun'Ebo M, Cousens S, Haggerty P, Kalengaie M, Ashworth A, Kirkwood B, 1997. Measuring hygiene practices: a comparison of questionnaires with direct observations in rural Zaire. Trop Med Int Health 2: 1015–1021.
-
3.
Stanton BF, Clemens JD, Aziz KM, Rahman M, 1987. Twenty-four-hour recall, knowledge-attitude-practice questionnaires, and direct observations of sanitary practices: a comparative study. Bull World Health Organ 65: 217–222.
-
4.
Luby SP, Halder AK, 2008. Associations among handwashing indicators, wealth, and symptoms of childhood respiratory illness in urban Bangladesh. Trop Med Int Health 13: 835-8-44.
-
5.
Halder AK, Tronchet C, Akhter S, Bhuiya A, Johnston R, Luby SP, Observed hand cleanliness and other measures of handwashing behavior in rural Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 10: 545.
-
6.
Hoque BA, Mahalanabis D, Alam MJ, Islam MS, 1995. Post-defecation handwashing in Bangladesh: practice and efficiency perspectives. Public Health 109: 15–24.
-
7.
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Raza A, Sobel J, Mint ED, Baier K, Hoekstra RM, Rahbar MH, Hassan R, Qureshi SM, Gangarosa EJ, 2001. Microbiologic effectiveness of hand washing with soap in an urban squatter settlement, Karachi, Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect 127: 237–244.
-
8.
Pinfold JV, 1990. Faecal contamination of water and fingertip-rinses as a method for evaluating the effect of low-cost water supply and sanitation activities on faeco-oral disease transmission. I. A case study in rural north-east Thailand. Epidemiol Infect 105: 363–375.
-
9.
Pinfold JV, Horan NJ, 1996. Measuring the effect of a hygiene behaviour intervention by indicators of behaviour and diarrhoeal disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90: 366–371.
-
10.
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Billhimer W, Hoekstra RM, 2007. Field trial of a low cost method to evaluate hand cleanliness. Trop Med Int Health 12: 765–771.
-
11.
Pickering AJ, Davis J, Walters SP, Horak HM, Keymer DP, Mushi D, Strickfaden R, Chynoweth JS, Liu J, Blum A, Rogers K, Boehm AB. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
12.
Larson E, Aiello A, Lee LV, Della-Latta P, Gomez-Duarte C, Lin S, 2003. Short- and long-term effects of handwashing with antimicrobial or plain soap in the community. J Community Health 28: 139–150.
-
13.
Islam MS, Alam MJ, Khan SI, Huq A, 1994. Faecal pollution of fresh water environments in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Studies 46: 161–165.
-
14.
Sobel J, Mahon B, Mendoza CE, Passaro D, Cano F, Baier K, Racioppi F, Hutwagner L, Mintz E, 1998. Reduction of fecal contamination of street-vended beverages in Guatemala by a simple system for water purification and storage, handwashing, and beverage storage. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59: 380–387.
-
15.
Kaltenthaler E, Waterman R, Cross P, 1991. Faecal indicator bacteria on the hands and the effectiveness of hand-washing in Zimbabwe. J Trop Med Hyg 94: 358–363.
-
16.
Kaltenthaler EC, Pinfold JV, 1995. Microbiological methods for assessing handwashing practice in hygiene behaviour studies. J Trop Med Hyg 98: 101–106.
-
17.
Fuls JL, Rodgers ND, Fischler GE, Howard JM, Patel M, Weidner PL, Duran MH, 2008. Alternative hand contamination technique to compare the activities of antimicrobial and nonantimicrobial soaps under different test conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 74: 3739–3744.
-
18.
Moe CL, Sobsey MD, Samsa GP, Mesolo V, 1991. Bacterial indicators of risk of diarrhoeal disease from drinking-water in the Philippines. Bull World Health Organ 69: 305–317.
-
19.
Stauber CE, Ortiz GM, Loomis DP, Sobsey MD, 2009. A randomized controlled trial of the concrete biosand filter and its impact on diarrheal disease in Bonao, Dominican Republic. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 286–293.
-
20.
Brown JM, Proum S, Sobsey MD, 2008. Escherichia coli in household drinking water and diarrheal disease risk: evidence from Cambodia. Water Sci Technol 58: 757–763.
-
21.
Pickering AJ, Boehm AB, Mwanjali M, Davis J, 2010. Efficacy of waterless hand hygiene compared with handwashing with soap: a field study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 270–278.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 478 | 441 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 372 | 21 | 6 |
| PDF Downloads | 120 | 17 | 6 |