ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
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1.
Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED, 2004. The global burden of typhoid fever. Bull World Health Organ 84: 346–353.
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3.
Lutterloh E, Likaka A, Sejvar J, Manda R, Naiene J, Monroe SS, Khaila T, Chilima B, Mallewa M, Kampondeni SD, Lowther SA, Capewell L, Date K, Townes D, Redwood Y, Schier JG, Nygren B, Tippett Barr B, Demby A, Phiri A, Lungu R, Kaphiyo J, Humphrys M, Talkington D, Joyce K, Stockman LJ, Armstrong GL, Mintz E, 2012. Multidrug-resistant typhoid fever with neurologic findings on the Malawi-Mozambique border. Clin Infect Dis 54: 1100–1106.
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Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Veyi J, Kaswa M, Lunguya O, Verhaegen J, Boelaert M, 2009. An outbreak of peritonitis caused by multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhi in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Travel Med Infect Dis 7: 40–43.
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Walters MS, Routh J, Mikoleit M, Kadivane S, Ouma C, Mubiru D, Mbusa B, Murangi A, Ejoku E, Rwantangle A, Kule U, Lule J, Garrett N, Halpin J, Maxwell N, Kagirita A, Mulabya F, Makumbi I, Freeman M, Joyce K, Hill V, Downing R, Mintz E, 2014. Shifts in geographic distribution and antimicrobial resistance during a prolonged typhoid fever outbreak—Bundibugyo and Kasese Districts, Uganda, 2009–2011. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. Available at: http://www.plosntds.org/article/info3Adoi2F10.13712Fjournal.pntd.0002726. Accessed April 6, 2014.
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Clarke KR, Kanyanga MK, Musenga E, Tambatamba B, Lukwesa C, Bopp C, Malama C, Routh J, Marx MA, Craig AS, Mintz E, 2012. Outbreak of multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi, Lusaka, Zambia, 2011–2012. American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 61st Annual Meeting; 2012; Atlanta, GA.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012. Notes from the field: Salmonella typhi infections associated with contaminated water–Zimbabwe, October 2011–May 2012. MMWR 61: 435.
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Imanishi M, Kweza P, Slayton RB, Urayai T, Ziro O, Mushayi W, Chizororo M, Kuonza L, Ayers T, Freeman M, Govore E, Duri C, Chonzi P, Zinyowera S, Manangazira P, Kilmarx PH, Mintz E, Lantagne D; Zimbabwe Typhoid Fever Outbreak Working Group 2011–2012, 2014. Household water treatment uptake during a public health response to a large typhoid fever outbreak in Harare, Zimbabwe. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 945–954.
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Crump JA, 2012. Typhoid fever and the challenge of nonmalaria febrile illness in sub-saharan Africa. Clin Infect Dis 54: 1107–1109.
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Nelson C, 2012. Controlling the typhoid epidemic plaguing sub-Saharan Africa. Atlantic 4. Available at: http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/04/controlling-the-typhoid-epidemic-plaguing-sub-saharan-africa/255243/. Accessed December 2, 2013.
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Slayton RB, Date KA, Mintz E, 2013. Vaccination for typhoid fever in sub-Saharan Africa. Hum Vaccin Immunother 9: 1–4.
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Lewis MD, Serichantalergs O, Pitarangsi C, Chuanak N, Mason CJ, Regmi LR, Pandey P, Laskar R, Shrestha CD, Malla S, 2005. Typhoid fever: a massive, single-point source, multidrug-resistant outbreak in Nepal. Clin Infect Dis 40: 554–561.
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DeRoeck D, Jodar L, Clemens J, 2007. Putting typhoid vaccination on the global health agenda. N Engl J Med 357: 1069–1071.
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15.
Breiman RF, Cosmas L, Njuguna H, Audi A, Olack B, Ochieng JB, Wamola N, Bigogo GM, Awiti G, Tabu CW, Burke H, Williamson J, Oundo JO, Mintz ED, Feikin DR, 2012. Population-based incidence of typhoid fever in an urban informal settlement and a rural area in Kenya: implications for typhoid vaccine use in Africa. PLoS ONE 7: e29119. Epub 2012 Jan 19.
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Maurice J, 2012. A first step in bringing typhoid fever out of the closet. Lancet 379: 699–700.
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Sejvar J, Lutterloh E, Naiene J, Likaka A, Manda R, Nygren B, Monroe S, Khaila T, Lowther SA, Capewell L, Date K, Townes D, Redwood Y, Schier J, Barr BT, Demby A, Mallewa M, Kampondeni S, Blount B, Humphrys M, Talkington D, Armstrong GL, Mintz E, 2012. Neurologic manifestations associated with an outbreak of typhoid fever, Malawi–Mozambique, 2009: an epidemiologic investigation. PLoS ONE 7: e46099.
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19.
Scobie HB, Nilles E, Kama M, Kool JL, Mintz E, Wannemuehler KA, Hyde TB, Dawainavesi A, Singh S, Korovou S, Jenkins K, Date K, 2014. Impact of a targeted typhoid vaccination campaign following cyclone Tomas, Republic of Fiji, 2010. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Available at: http://www.ajtmh.org/content/early/by/section. Accessed June 2, 2014.
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Formative Investigation of Acceptability of Typhoid Vaccine During a Typhoid Fever Outbreak in Neno District, Malawi
Lauren S. Blum
Lauren S. Blum
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Holly Dentz
Holly Dentz
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Felix Chingoli
Felix Chingoli
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Benson Chilima
Benson Chilima
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Thomas Warne
Thomas Warne
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Carla Lee
Carla Lee
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Terri Hyde
Terri Hyde
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Jacqueline Gindler
Jacqueline Gindler
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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James Sejvar
James Sejvar
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Eric D. Mintz
Eric D. Mintz
Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, (NCEZID), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Strengthening Immunization Systems Branch, Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health (CGH), CDC, Atlanta, Georgia; Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi; Community Health Services Unit, MOH, Lilongwe, Malawi; Global AIDS Program Malawi, Division of Global HIV AIDS, CGH, CDC, Lilongwe, Malawi; Office of the Director, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, NCEZID, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
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Typhoid fever affects an estimated 22 million people annually and causes 216,000 deaths worldwide. We conducted an investigation in August and September 2010 to examine the acceptability of typhoid vaccine in Neno District, Malawi where a typhoid outbreak was ongoing. We used qualitative methods, including freelisting exercises, key informant and in-depth interviews, and group discussions. Respondents associated illness with exposure to “bad wind,” and transmission was believed to be airborne. Typhoid was considered extremely dangerous because of its rapid spread, the debilitating conditions it produced, the number of related fatalities, and the perception that it was highly contagious. Respondents were skeptical about the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) interventions. The perceived severity of typhoid and fear of exposure, uncertainty about the effectiveness of WaSH measures, and widespread belief in the efficacy of vaccines in preventing disease resulted in an overwhelming interest in receiving typhoid vaccine during an outbreak.
Author Notes
Financial support: The investigation was funded by the Division of Global Disease Detection and Emergency Response, CGH, CDC.
Authors' addresses: Lauren S. Blum, Dakar, Senegal, E-mail: laurensblum@yahoo.com. Holly Dentz, Center for Global Safe Water, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: hollydentz@gmail.com. Felix Chingoli, Neno District Health Office, Neno, Malawi, E-mail: fchingoli@gmail.com. Benson Chilima, Ministry of Health, Lilongwe, Malawi, E-mail: bchilima2@yahoo.com. Thomas Warne, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pretoria, South Africa, E-mail: warnet@sa.cdc.gov. Carla Lee, Terri Hyde, and Jacqueline Gindler, Global Immunization Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mails: cel1@cdc.gov, tkh4@cdc.gov, and jsg5@cdc.gov. James Sejvar and Eric D. Mintz, National Center for Emerging Infectious and Zoonotic Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mails: zea3@cdc.gov and edm1@cdc.gov.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED, 2004. The global burden of typhoid fever. Bull World Health Organ 84: 346–353.
-
2.
Neil KP, Sodha SV, Lukwago L, O-Tipo S, Mikoleit M, Simington SD, Mukobi P, Balinandi S, Majalija S, Ayers J, Kagirita A, Wefula E, Asiimwe F, Kweyamba V, Talkington D, Shieh WJ, Adem P, Batten BC, Zaki SR, Mintz E, 2012. A large outbreak of typhoid fever associated with a high rate of intestinal perforation in Kasese District, Uganda, 2008–2009. Clin Infect Dis 54: 1091–1099.
-
3.
Lutterloh E, Likaka A, Sejvar J, Manda R, Naiene J, Monroe SS, Khaila T, Chilima B, Mallewa M, Kampondeni SD, Lowther SA, Capewell L, Date K, Townes D, Redwood Y, Schier JG, Nygren B, Tippett Barr B, Demby A, Phiri A, Lungu R, Kaphiyo J, Humphrys M, Talkington D, Joyce K, Stockman LJ, Armstrong GL, Mintz E, 2012. Multidrug-resistant typhoid fever with neurologic findings on the Malawi-Mozambique border. Clin Infect Dis 54: 1100–1106.
-
4.
Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Veyi J, Kaswa M, Lunguya O, Verhaegen J, Boelaert M, 2009. An outbreak of peritonitis caused by multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhi in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Travel Med Infect Dis 7: 40–43.
-
5.
Walters MS, Routh J, Mikoleit M, Kadivane S, Ouma C, Mubiru D, Mbusa B, Murangi A, Ejoku E, Rwantangle A, Kule U, Lule J, Garrett N, Halpin J, Maxwell N, Kagirita A, Mulabya F, Makumbi I, Freeman M, Joyce K, Hill V, Downing R, Mintz E, 2014. Shifts in geographic distribution and antimicrobial resistance during a prolonged typhoid fever outbreak—Bundibugyo and Kasese Districts, Uganda, 2009–2011. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. Available at: http://www.plosntds.org/article/info3Adoi2F10.13712Fjournal.pntd.0002726. Accessed April 6, 2014.
-
6.
Clarke KR, Kanyanga MK, Musenga E, Tambatamba B, Lukwesa C, Bopp C, Malama C, Routh J, Marx MA, Craig AS, Mintz E, 2012. Outbreak of multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi, Lusaka, Zambia, 2011–2012. American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 61st Annual Meeting; 2012; Atlanta, GA.
-
7.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012. Notes from the field: Salmonella typhi infections associated with contaminated water–Zimbabwe, October 2011–May 2012. MMWR 61: 435.
-
8.
Imanishi M, Kweza P, Slayton RB, Urayai T, Ziro O, Mushayi W, Chizororo M, Kuonza L, Ayers T, Freeman M, Govore E, Duri C, Chonzi P, Zinyowera S, Manangazira P, Kilmarx PH, Mintz E, Lantagne D; Zimbabwe Typhoid Fever Outbreak Working Group 2011–2012, 2014. Household water treatment uptake during a public health response to a large typhoid fever outbreak in Harare, Zimbabwe. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 945–954.
-
9.
Crump JA, 2012. Typhoid fever and the challenge of nonmalaria febrile illness in sub-saharan Africa. Clin Infect Dis 54: 1107–1109.
-
10.
Nelson C, 2012. Controlling the typhoid epidemic plaguing sub-Saharan Africa. Atlantic 4. Available at: http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/04/controlling-the-typhoid-epidemic-plaguing-sub-saharan-africa/255243/. Accessed December 2, 2013.
-
11.
Slayton RB, Date KA, Mintz E, 2013. Vaccination for typhoid fever in sub-Saharan Africa. Hum Vaccin Immunother 9: 1–4.
-
12.
World Health Organization, 2008. Typhoid vaccines: WHO position paper. WER 83: 49–60.
-
13.
Lewis MD, Serichantalergs O, Pitarangsi C, Chuanak N, Mason CJ, Regmi LR, Pandey P, Laskar R, Shrestha CD, Malla S, 2005. Typhoid fever: a massive, single-point source, multidrug-resistant outbreak in Nepal. Clin Infect Dis 40: 554–561.
-
14.
DeRoeck D, Jodar L, Clemens J, 2007. Putting typhoid vaccination on the global health agenda. N Engl J Med 357: 1069–1071.
-
15.
Breiman RF, Cosmas L, Njuguna H, Audi A, Olack B, Ochieng JB, Wamola N, Bigogo GM, Awiti G, Tabu CW, Burke H, Williamson J, Oundo JO, Mintz ED, Feikin DR, 2012. Population-based incidence of typhoid fever in an urban informal settlement and a rural area in Kenya: implications for typhoid vaccine use in Africa. PLoS ONE 7: e29119. Epub 2012 Jan 19.
-
16.
Maurice J, 2012. A first step in bringing typhoid fever out of the closet. Lancet 379: 699–700.
-
17.
Sejvar J, Lutterloh E, Naiene J, Likaka A, Manda R, Nygren B, Monroe S, Khaila T, Lowther SA, Capewell L, Date K, Townes D, Redwood Y, Schier J, Barr BT, Demby A, Mallewa M, Kampondeni S, Blount B, Humphrys M, Talkington D, Armstrong GL, Mintz E, 2012. Neurologic manifestations associated with an outbreak of typhoid fever, Malawi–Mozambique, 2009: an epidemiologic investigation. PLoS ONE 7: e46099.
-
18.
Yang HH, Kilgore PE, Yang LH, Park JK, Pan YF, Kim Y, Lee YJ, Xu ZY, Clemens JD, 2001. An outbreak of typhoid fever, Xing-An County, People's Republic of China, 1999: estimation of the field effectiveness of Vi polysaccharide typhoid vaccine. J Infect Dis 183: 1775–1780.
-
19.
Scobie HB, Nilles E, Kama M, Kool JL, Mintz E, Wannemuehler KA, Hyde TB, Dawainavesi A, Singh S, Korovou S, Jenkins K, Date K, 2014. Impact of a targeted typhoid vaccination campaign following cyclone Tomas, Republic of Fiji, 2010. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Available at: http://www.ajtmh.org/content/early/by/section. Accessed June 2, 2014.
-
20.
Kaljee LM, Pack R, Pach A, Nyamete A, Stanton B, 2004. Sociobehavioral research methods for the introduction of vaccines in the diseases of the most impoverished programme. J Health Popul Nutr 22: 293–303.
-
21.
Blum LS, Nahar N, 2004. Cultural and social context of dysentery: implications for the introduction of a new vaccine. J Health Popul Nutr 22: 159–169.
-
22.
Pack R, Wang Y, Singh A, Seidlein LV, Pach A, Kaljee L, Butraporn P, Youlong G, Blum L, Bhutta Z, Santoso SS, Trach DD, Waluyo I, Nyamete A, Clemens J, Stanton B, 2006. Willingness to be vaccinated against Shigella and other forms of dysentery: a comparison of three regions in Asia. Vaccine 24: 485–494.
-
23.
Chen S, Stanton B, Wang X, Nyamette A, Pach A, Kaljee L, Pack R, von Seidlein L, Clemens J, Gong Y, Mao R, 2006. Differences in perception of dysentery and enteric fever and willingness to receive vaccines among rural residents in China. Vaccine 24: 561–571.
-
24.
Pach A, Tabbusam G, Khan MI, Suhag Z, Hussain I, Hussain E, Mumtaz U, Haq IU, Tahir R, Mirani A, Yousafzai A, Sahastrabuddhe S, Ochiai RL, Soofi S, Clemens JD, Favorov MO, Bhutta ZA, 2013. Formative research and development of an evidence-based communication strategy: the introduction of vi typhoid fever vaccine among school-aged children in Karachi, Pakistan. J Health Commun 18: 306–324.
-
25.
Kamal KM, Madhavan SS, Amonkar MM, 2003. Determinants of adult influenza and pneumonia immunization rates. J Am Pharm Assoc 43: 403–411.
-
26.
Nichter M, 1996 Vaccinations in the Third World: a consideration of community demand. Anthropology and International Health. Nichter M, Nichter M, eds. Gordon and Breach Publishers, Amsterdam, 329–366.
-
27.
Streefland P, Chowdhury AM, Ramos-Jimenez P, 1999. Patterns of vaccination acceptance. Soc Sci Med 49: 1705–1716.
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28.
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